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Research examining student outcomes (e.g., achievement, adjustment) after grade retention reveals that it does not result in long-term improvements for students; however, grade retention continues to be used as an intervention. The purpose of this study was to examine retention decision-making practices, as well as school psychologists' knowledge, beliefs, and opinions regarding retention. Actual and ideal roles of school psychologists in grade retention decisions were also examined. Participants included 250 school psychologists randomly selected from the membership of the National Association of School Psychologists. Results revealed that the decision to retain is a subjective one, typically made by a team. Responding school psychologists did not support retention and found the research moderately applicable to practice. However, most school psychologists indicated that they were not centrally involved in decision making. Findings also revealed a desire among school psychologists for increased involvement in developing and/or implementing programs aimed at improving performance and consulting on the effects of retention. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Objective: To determine plasma pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam after a single intravenous dose (60 mg/kg) in normal dogs using a high-performance liquid chromatography assay validated for canine plasma. Design: Pharmacokinetic study. Setting: A university-based canine research facility. Animals: Six healthy adult dogs. Interventions: Intravenous drug administration, multiple blood sample procurement. Measurements and main results: There were no obvious adverse effects associated with the intravenous (IV) bolus administration of levetiracetam in any of the dogs. Plasma levetiracetam concentrations remained above or within the reported therapeutic range for humans (5–45 μg/mL) for all dogs, for all time periods evaluated. Mean and median (in parentheses) values for pharmacokinetic parameters included the following: maximum plasma concentration, 254 μg/mL (254 μg/mL); half-life, 4.0 hours (4.0 hours); volume of distribution at steady state, 0.48 L/kg (0.48 L/kg); clearance, 1.4 mL/kg/min (1.5 mL/kg/min); and median residence time, 6.0 hours (6.0 hours). Conclusions: In normal dogs, a 60 mg/kg IV bolus dose of levetiracetam is well tolerated and achieves plasma drug concentrations within or above the therapeutic range reported for humans for at least 8 hours after administration. Based on the favorable pharmacokinetics and tolerability demonstrated for IV levetiracetam in this study, in addition to previously demonstrated efficacy of oral levetiracetam, IV levetiracetam may be a useful treatment option for emergency management of canine seizure activity.

This study assessed university students’ attributions for compliance after envisioning their instructors attempting to influence them through the use of social power. Differences in student attributions were hypothesized based on student gender, region of residence within the United States, and class standing (i.e., lower vs. upper division). Participants (N= 326) completed a modified version of Raven, Schwarzwald, and Koslowsky’s (1 998) Interpersonal Power Inventory. The power dynamic between teachers and students differs from that of a more traditional supervisor-subordinate relationship. Support was not obtained for the hypothesis regarding student gender, while full support was obtained for the hypotheses regarding region of residence and class standing. Implications for instructors are discussed, as well as implications for future social power research. According to Russell (1938), “The fundamental concept in social science is Power, in the same sense in which Energy is the fundamental concept in Physics” (p. lo). At its core, the utilization of social power consists of a powerholder (typically a supervisor) who is trying to achieve compliance from another individual, the target (typically a subordinate). For the current research, the powerholdertarget dynamic will be such that the powerholder is a university faculty member and the target is a university student.

During the past decade, amidst the current context emphasizing educational standards and accountability, the practice of grade retention has increased. The call for an end to social promotion has generated a variety of recommendations and legislation regarding promotion policies. This context has served as a catalyst for numerous debates regarding the use of grade retention and social promotion. In an era emphasizing evidence-based interventions, research indicates that neither grade retention nor social promotion is a successful strategy for improving educational success. Moreover, research also reveals prevention and intervention strategies that are likely to promote the social or academic competence of students at risk of poor school performance. It is essential that educational professionals are familiar with the research when implementing interventions to promote student success. School psychologists may use this article as a primer for teachers, administrators, and parents, as it provides a synthesis of research addressing the following important questions: (a) What are the demographic characteristics of retained students? (b) What are the effects of retention on academic and socioemotional outcomes? (c) What long-term outcomes are associated with grade retention? (d) What are students' perspectives regarding grade retention? (e) How does a developmental perspective enhance our understanding? (f) What are some empirically supported effective intervention strategies? Educational professionals are encouraged to incorporate evidence-based programs and policies to facilitate the success of all students. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 85–97, 2006.

Upon photolysis or heating, aryl cyclic sulfonium (ACS) zwitterions polymerize by ring-opening and loss of charge to yield nonionic polymers. These water-soluble monomers potentially are useful for photolithography because they can be cast from and developed in water. The ACS zwitterion from bisphenol A, 1,1′-[isopropylidenebis(6-hydroxy-3,1-phenylene)] bis (tetrahydrothiophenium hydroxide) bis(inner salt) (1) is a negative-tone, photosensitive material that after photolysis yields a crosslinked film. Unexposed regions are removed by water. The cured film has a low dielectric constant, high volume resistivity, a high degree of planarization, low residual stress, thermogravimetric stability, acceptable fracture toughness, and high hardness. These are desirable properties for a dielectric material used in microelectronic applications. However, a shortcoming of the material is its low Tg, at about 140 °C. A second ACS zwitterion, 1,1′-[fluorenylidenebis(6-hydroxy-3,1-phenylene)] bis(tetrahydrothiophenium hydroxide) bis(inner salt) (2) was prepared that yields a crosslinked polymer with a higher Tg of about 190 °C. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci A: Polym Chem 38: 1283–1290, 2000