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Several lines of evidence suggest that the agaricoid, non-ectomycorrhizal members of the family Hygrophoraceae (waxcaps) are biotrophic with unusual nitrogen nutrition. However, methods for the axenic culture and lab-based study of these organisms remain to be developed, so our current knowledge is limited to field-based investigations. Addition of nitrogen, lime or organophosphate pesticide at an experimental field site (Sourhope) suppressed fruiting of waxcap basidiocarps. Furthermore, stable isotope natural abundance in basidiocarps were unusually high in 15 N and low in 13 C, the latter consistent with mycorrhizal nutritional status. Similar patterns were found in waxcap basidiocarps from diverse habitats across four continents. Additional data from 14 C analysis of basidiocarps and 13 C pulse label experiments suggest that these fungi are not saprotrophs but rather biotrophic endophytes and possibly mycorrhizal. The consistently high but variable δ15 N values (10-20‰) of basidiocarps further indicate that N acquisition or processing differ from other fungi; we suggest that N may be derived from acquisition of N via soil fauna high in the food chain.

Mycorrhaphoides gen. nov. and Mycorrhaphoides stalpersii sp. nov. are described and defined based on morphological details and phylogenetic inference of a hydnoid macrofungus collected in Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah (India). It is characterized by stipitate basidiomata with duplex context in stipe, presence of multi-clamped septa, and smooth and hyaline cystidia.

Two new species, Vararia bispora and V. montana collected from southern China, are described and illustrated based on morphological characters. Vararia bispora is characterized by cinnamon-buff to yellowish brown basidiocarps, clamped generative hyphae, ventricose gloeocystidia, 2-sterigmata basidia, and large fusiform to cylindrical basidiospores that are negative in Melzer's reagent. Vararia montana is characterized by small pulvinate basidiocarps, clamped generative hyphae, rather strongly dextrinoid dichohyphae, and broadly ellipsoid basidiospores with a peculiar beak-like extension, and without reactions in Melzer's reagent. In addition, V. ambigua and V. amphithallica are reported from China for the first time, and descriptions and illustrations are also provided for these two species.

This study evaluates resistance to witches’ broom disease in flower cushions of Theobroma cacao under field conditions. The aim was to determine optimal inoculation methods to evaluate the disease incidence using flower cushions in the field. A segregating mapping population of 580 trees (cultivar TSH 1188 × CCN 51) was analysed under two field conditions: high and low inoculum levels (in different years), corresponding respectively to trees with or without dried witches’ brooms hanging on the trees and producing basidiocarps. The number of newly formed cushion brooms in each tree was counted by the conventional method, and also the healthy and infected flower cushions in three 30 cm-long regions along the trunk and the two main branches. The field inoculation methods discriminated between genotypes, with a 26% increase in disease incidence by Moniliophthora perniciosa at high inoculum. Two different segregation patterns were also observed: 27:27:9:1 under low, and 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1 under high inoculum potential. It was also determined that at least 20 flower cushions were needed to accurately determine the percentage of infection. These methodologies allowed identification of the extreme phenotypes in this mapping population, and can therefore facilitate the detection of sources of resistance to witches’ broom disease.

Two new polypores (Ceriporiopsis lavendula B. K. Cui sp. nov. and Skeletocutis inflata B. K. Cui sp. nov.) are described from the Guangdong Province in southern China. Ceriporiopsis lavendula is characterized by having resupinate basidiocarps with lavender to grayish blue pore surface and very thin to almost absent subiculum, a monomitic hyphal system with clamped generative hyphae, and oblong-ellipsoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Moreover, it grows on wood of Castanopsis exclusively. Skeletocutis inflata is characterized by having pileate basidiocarps, smaller pores (8–10 per mm), inflated and partly dissolved skeletal hyphae in KOH. In addition, its tramal skeletal hyphae are parallel along the tubes. Identification keys to species of Ceriporiopsis and Skeletocutis occurring in China are provided.

Niu-chang-chih, a medicinal polypore restricted to Taiwan on the endemic tree species Cinnamomum kanehirae, currently goes by the names Antrodia cinnamomea T.T. Chang &W.N. Chou, A. camphorata (M. Zang & C.H. Su) Sheng H. Wu & al., and Taiwanofungus camphoratus (M. Zang & C.H. Su) Sheng H. Wu & al., the latter two based on Ganoderma camphoratum M. Zang & C.H. Su. The basidiocarps on the holotypes for the two basionyms Antrodia cinnamomea and Ganoderma camphoratum are of niu-chang-chih. The first validly published name that was applied to this species was G. camphoratum M. Zang & C.H. Su published in 1990. However, the original type of G. camphoratum consisted of mixed material, consisting chiefly of a basidiocarp of niu-chang-chih but also of the spores of another unrelated fungus. The two elements are represented in the original description and accompanying illustrations. Later Chang & Chou (2004) lectotypifed G. camphoratum limiting it to the spores described and illustrated by Zang and Su, the only portion of the original type that Chang and Chou believed to belong in Ganoderma, and applied the name Antrodia cinnamomea Chang & Chou (1995) to niu-chang-chih. Many, however, reject Chang and Chou's conclusions and continue to apply the name Ganoderma camphoratum, and combinations based on it (i.e., Antrodia camphoratum,Taiwanofungus camphoratus), to niu-chang-chih, relegating Antrodia cinnamomea to synonymy. Based on careful examination of the type of G. camphoratum, it is concluded that the spores upon which Chang and Chou's lectotype is based are a minor admixture with the original gathering of the niu-chang-chih specimen and thus cannot serve as the lectotype for the name Ganoderma camphoratum. Ganoderma camphoratum is lectotypified here so as to exclude the spores present in the original holotype that are not from niu-chang-chih. Furthermore, since this conclusion could be subject to challenge and the species is exceptionally important medicinally and economically, we also propose to conserve the name with a conserved type that is consistent with the lectotype effected herein. An overview of the taxonomy of niu-chang-chih is also provided and a new combination, Taiwanofungus salmoneus, for a related species is effected.

We report Schizophyllum commune as the aetiological agent of one case each of allergic broncho-pulmonary mycosis (ABPM) and pulmonary fungal ball, and present a literature review. The fungus was characterised by clamp connections, hyphal spicules, and formation of basidiocarps with basidiospores. The phenotypic identification was confirmed by sequencing of the ITS region. To-date, ABPM and pulmonary fungal ball to S. commune have been reported exclusively from Japan and North America respectively. Of the 71 globally reported cases due to S. commune, 45 (63%) were bronchopulmonary, 22 (31%) sinusitis and 4 extrapulmonary. Taken together, cases of bronchopulmonary disease and sinusitis numbered 67 (94%), indicating the respiratory tract as the primary target of disease. Concerning the country-wise distribution, Japan topped the list with 33 cases (46%), followed by Iran - 7 cases (10%), U.S.A. - 6 cases (9%), and a lower prevalence of 1.4-6% for the remaining 12 countries. The preponderance of the disease in Japan may be attributed to its greater awareness vis-a-vis that in other countries rather than to any geographical/climatic factors. We believe that the burden of S. commune-incited disease is currently underestimated, warranting comprehensive prospective studies to determine its prevalence.

Antrodiella pendulina H. S. Yuan and A. citripileata H. S. Yuan spp. nov. from southern China are illustrated and described. Antrodiella pendulina has disciform basidiocarps, a trimitic hyphal system, cylindrical basidiospores and occur exclusively on angiosperm twigs. Antrodiella citripileata has effused-reflexed to pileate and lemon-colored basidiocarps, very small pores, thick-walled skeletal hyphae with a wide lumen, and small ellipsoid basidiospores.

 Premise of the study : Sequestrate basidiomycete fungi (e.g. “ gasteromycetes ” ) have foregone ballistospory and evolved alternative, often elaborate mechanisms of basidiospore dispersal with highly altered basidioma morphology. Sequestrate fungi have independently evolved in numerous Agaricomycete lineages, confounding taxonomic arrangements of these fungi for decades. Understanding the multiple origins and taxonomic affi nities of sequestrate fungi provides insight into the evolutionary forces that can drastically alter basidioma morphology. In the neotropical rainforests of the Guiana Shield, we encountered a remarkable sequestrate fungus fruiting directly on decaying hardwood roots. The fungus ’ singular combination of traits include a wood-decaying habit; black, verrucose peridium; reduced stipe; and gelatinized basidiospore mass.  Methods : Guyanagaster necrorhiza gen. et sp. nov. is described. Macro- and micromorphological characters were assessed and compared to most similar taxa. To determine the phylogenetic affi nities of the fungus, DNA sequence data were obtained for the 18S, ITS, and 28S rDNA, RBP2 , and EF1 α regions and subjected to single- and multi-gene analyses. DNA sequences from fungal vegetative organs growing on decaying woody roots confi rmed the wood-inhabiting lifestyle of Guyanagaster .  Key results : Guyanagaster is morphologically unique among sequestrate fungi worldwide. Phylogenetic evidence places Guyanagaster in close relation to the wood-decaying mushroom genus Armillaria in the Physalacriaceae (Agaricales, Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota).  Conclusions : Guyanagaster represents an independently evolved sequestrate form within the Physalacriaceae. Although molecular data confi rm that Guyanagaster is closely related to Armillaria , the unusual features of this fungus suggest a case of radically divergent morphological evolution.

The basidiomycetous fungus Onnia tomentosa is one of the most widespread root rot pathogens in North America. Although the disease is more severe on spruce and pine trees, this pathogen can infect several coniferous species. To study the population structure of O. tomentosa, we harvested 180 basidiocarps in a 45-year-old white spruce plantation in western Quebec in autumn 1997 and extracted DNA directly from individual basidiocarps. Using a combination of spatial coordinates and molecular data based on the analysis of two mitochondrial and three nuclear loci, we measured the average genet size and molecular diversity and assessed the relative contribution of basidiospores and vegetative growth to the stand colonization. Most of the sampled basidiocarps that clustered spatially belonged to the same genet. A total of 37 discrete multilocus genets of an average size of 3.42 m were obtained. The genet size distribution was skewed towards smaller genets (3 m) that displayed higher diversity than the larger genets (3 m). The nuclear loci were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in the larger genets, but not in the smaller genets, which displayed a deficiency of heterozygotes. This suggests a Wahlund effect, whereby different colonization events resulted in expected heterozygosity higher than observed heterozygosity. Using an estimate of the growth rate of the fungus, only a few of the largest genets were approximately the age of the plantation. These observations are consistent with the colonization by basidiospores subsequent to site preparation and tree planting followed by secondary colonization events and vegetative spread.

Summary Fruiting of Heterobasidion on cull pieces and stumps of Norway spruce was investigated in cutting areas and mature spruce stands located in southern Finland. Cull pieces of variable size and showing butt rot were left on three clear-cut areas and in one thinned stand. Additionally, a part of the cull pieces was transported to mature forest sites with closed canopy. During the succeeding 3–4 years the cull pieces were investigated annually for sporocarps of Heterobasidion, and the area of actively sporulating pore layer of each sporocarp was measured. Root bases of spruce stumps in the logging areas were excavated and sporocarps found on the stumps also measured. At the onset of the experiment, Heterobasidion spp. were isolated from 76% of the cull pieces showing butt rot; 85% of the isolates were identified as H. parviporum and 15% as H. annosum s.s. During the following 3–4 years sporocarps were found on 20% of the 1938 cull pieces where Heterobasidion butt rot was initially detected visually. Sporocarp formation was promoted by advancement of butt rot, increasing cull piece diameter and end-to-end ground contact, but restricted by the colonization of the cull piece by Stereum sanguinolentum. Between-site differences were significant but could not be explained by differences in tree cover. At the end of the investigation period the average sporulating area of Heterobasidion sporocarp per metre of cull piece was higher than the average sporulating area per stump at three of four logging sites. Hence, leaving cull pieces containing Heterobasidion butt rot at logging areas in southern Finland can considerably increase local production of Heterobasidion spores.

The new basidiolichen Multiclavula ichthyiformis Nelsen, Lucking, Umana, Trest & Will-Wolf is described from Costa Rica. The new species differs from other species of Multiclavula in having a basidiocarp with tomentose stipe and flattened lamina with nonamphigenous hymenium. Molecular sequence data (ITS) confirmed its placement within Multiclavula in the Clavulinaceae (Cantharellales, Agaricomycetes). The new lichen was discovered in a Central American paramo remnant, illustrating the importance of biotic inventories of fungi and lichens to increase our knowledge of the diversity of these groups in endangered tropical ecosystems. The new species was found as part of the TICOLICHEN project in Costa Rica. inventory.

Summary The occurrence and symptoms of root and butt rot were examined in a 35 × 30 m plot of 68-year-old Todo fir plantation in Hokkaido, Japan. Forty-seven percent of the cut stumps were decayed and 52% of the decayed stumps showed similar decay characteristics with yellowish orange to light brown colouration and expanded pockets in the heartwood. Morphological characteristics of the pure cultures isolated from the decay were similar to the cultures isolated from basidiocarps of Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato, found on fallen logs outside of the research site. Also DNA analysis based on the combined data set of three gene loci (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, heat shock protein 80–1 and elongation factor 1-alpha genes) showed that the isolates from the decay are included in the same clade with the Japanese H. annosum s.l. isolates. They form a subclade to H. parviporum (the European S group of H. annosum s.l.). This is the first report of molecular determination of H. annosum s.l. isolated from root and butt rot in a plantation in Japan.

The pathogenicity and diagnostic methods were standardized for Ganoderma disease of coconut. The pathogenicity of Ganoderma lucidum isolated from coconut was tested using six types of inoculation techniques. Two diagnostic methods, viz. indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reactions (PCR) were applied for the confirmation of pathogenicity in coconut seedlings. Polyclonal antibodies (PAbs) were raised against mycelial, basidiocarp and specific proteins of Ganoderma and used for detection of Ganoderma in inoculated seedlings through indirect ELISA technique. All the three PAbs could detect Ganoderma in diseased coconut root tissues in early stage of the disease before symptom expression by indirect – ELISA at the antiserum dilution of 1 : 1000 for mycelial protein, 1 : 700 for Ganoderma specific protein and 1 : 3000 for basidiocarp protein. Low cross-reactions were observed with saprophytic fungi occurring in coconut roots and also with other basidiomycetous fungi. In PCR, primers Gan1 and Gan2 generated from internal transcribed spacer region of rDNA were used the detection that produced a product of 167-bp size in Ganoderma infected plants. In the present investigation, spawn inoculum responded earlier within 8 weeks compared with other methods of inoculation as expressed by OD value in ELISA test. This was also confirmed by PCR technique. The combination of these two diagnostic methods for detection of Ganoderma infection was highly reliable, rapid and sensitive.

The status and identities of Polyporus unitus, type of Perenniporia Murrill, of Boletus medulla-panis, their supposed synonymy, and the nomenclatural status of Perenniporia, Poria, and Physisporus are discussed. It is demonstrated, based on the study of its type, that Pol. unitus is not a synonym of B. medulla-panis even in the historically wider context than that recognised here. Although not precisely identifiable, the type of Pol. unitus does not belong to Perenniporia in its current sense, which is based on B. medulla-panis. Poria Pers. and Physisporus Chevall. are discussed as possible generic names for B. medulla-panis and related taxa. However, in view of the need for nomenclatural stability, it is proposed to maintain Perenniporia as currently accepted, with B. medulla-panis as conserved type. This name is epitypified and Perenniporia medulla-panis redefined. Based on a study of European specimens, two species are recognized within the historical circumscription of P. medulla-panis, Perenniporia meridionalis being described as new. Both species are compared with other European taxa with resupinate basidiomes and a key to all these taxa is presented.

Twenty-one basidiocarp specimens of Heterobasidion annosum s.l. were collected in six forest areas in western and central China, from host trees Picea schrenkiana, Abies fabri, Abies fargesii and Larix griffithii. Single-spore cultures were isolated from the basidiocarps and identified by mating tests. All the specimens proved to belong to the species Heterobasidion parviporum. The results show that this fungus has a wide distribution in China. It seems to be a less aggressive pathogen in China than in Europe, although reliable data on the occurrence of Heterobasidion root rot in coniferous forests of China are so far lacking.

Summary Forty-five basidiocarp specimens of Heterobasidion were collected from native Abies species in three locations in western Turkey: A. nordmanniana ssp. bornmulleriana in Bolu province, A. nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani in Balikesir province and A. cilicica in Antalya province. Pure cultures were isolated from the basidiocarps and identified to the species level with the aid of mating tests. All the specimens proved to belong to the species Heterobasidion abietinum. This root rot fungus is common in the forests investigated and appears to be relatively virulent on Abies in Turkey. This is the first report of H. abietinum outside Europe. Resume Quarante-cinq basidiocarpes d’Heterobasidion ont ete recoltes sur des especes indigenes d’Abies dans trois provinces de Turquie occidentale: A. nordmanniana ssp. bornmulleriana dans la province de Bolu, A. nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani dans la province de Balikesir et A. cilicica dans la province d'Antalya. Des cultures pures ont ete obtenues a partir des basidiocarpes, l'identification specifique etant realisee a partir de tests de croisements. Tous les specimens se sont averes appartenir a l'espece H. abietinum. Ce champignon de pourriture de racines est commun dans les forets etudiees et semble assez virulent sur Abies en Turquie. Ces observations constituent la premiere mention de H. abietinum en dehors de l'Europe. Zusammenfassung An folgenden einheimischen Abies-Arten an drei Standorten in der westlichen Turkei wurden insgesamt 45 Fruchtkorper von Heterobasidion gesammelt: Abies nordmanniana ssp. bornmulleriana (Provinz Bolu), A. nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani (Prov. Balikesir) und A. cilicica (Prov. Antalya). Es wurden Reinkulturen hergestellt und diese mit Hilfe von Kreuzungstests auf Artniveau bestimmt. Alle Kollektionen erwiesen sich als H. abietinum. Dieser Wurzelfauleerreger kommt in den untersuchten Waldern haufig vor und scheint an Tannen in der Turkei relativ virulent zu sein. H. abietinum wurde damit erstmals ausserhalb Europas nachgewiesen.

Summary Armillaria root rot is a well-known disease on a wide range of plants, world-wide. In Ethiopia, the disease has previously been reported on Pinus spp., Coffea arabica and on various native hardwoods. The causal agent of the disease has been attributed to Armillaria mellea, a species now known to represent a complex of many different taxa. The aim of this study was to determine the extent of Armillaria root rot and the identity of the Armillaria sp. in Ethiopian plantations. As part of a plantation disease survey in 2000 and 2001, samples were collected in plantations at and around Munessa Shashemene, Wondo Genet, Jima, Mizan and Bedele, in south and south-western Ethiopia. Basidiocarps were collected and their morphology studied. Morphological identification was confirmed by sequencing the intergenic spacer (IGS-1) region of the ribosomal rRNA operon and comparing data with published sequences of Armillaria spp. Armillaria isolates were collected from Acacia abyssinica, Pinus patula, Cedrela odorata and Cordia alliodora trees. Sporocarps were found on stumps of native Juniperus excelsa. Basidiocarp morphology and sequence data suggested that the fungus in Ethiopia is similar to that causing disease of Pinus spp. in South Africa and previously identified as A. fuscipes. This identification was confirmed for all isolates, based on sequence data. Armillaria fuscipes is known to be common in southern Africa. Its widespread occurrence in Ethiopia suggests that it is also the major cause of Armillaria root rot in that country.

Armillaria heimii is one of the most widespread Armillaria species recorded in Africa. The species was originally described as Clitocybe (Armillariella) elegans Heim, and was renamed as Armillaria heimii Pegler; this name was subsequently made synonymous with A. fuscipes Petch to represent as a single morphological species. Recent molecular work has suggested that isolates previously identified as A. heimii were distinct and may represent A. fuscipes or another Armillaria species. A collection of isolates that had been identified as A. heimii from different African countries were included in an integrated study that included amplified restriction-length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting, polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), sequencing, induction of basidiomata in vitro and somatic compatibility, in order to determine their identity. Although the isolates could be assigned to one of two molecular groups, the morphology and somatic compatibility characters suggested that the two groups represent different forms of a single species that closely matches the original description of A. heimii.

Gymnopilus penetrans (morphologically distinct from G. sapineus) grows well on the usual culture media in Petri dishes and forms arthroconidia in slimy droplets. Dense mycelial mounds reminiscent of the dense mycelial plugs observed in the natural substrate (decaying wood of Fagus sylvatica) develop in some cultures but fail to produce noduli and primordia. Hyphal strands do occur, but no rhizomorphs have been observed in artificial culture. The anatomy of the natural rhizomorphs extracted from the decayed wood is described. Rhizomorphs contain foreward and backward growing hyphae, vessel hyphae with incompletely dissolved septa, and some percurrent hyphae. Protein crystals are frequent. The noduli produced by the mycelial plugs in cavities in the decaying wood elongate to produce basidiome primordia. A loose outer layer envelops both, the nodulus and the young primordium. During development, this layer is slightly reinforced by hyphae growing out of the pileus and down towards the stipe, and by hyphae growing out of the stipe and up towards the pileus. The veil is therefore composed of the original loose layer (the noduloblema), the pileoblema and the cauloblema, the latter two forming the cortina of the mature basidiome. Gymnopilus penetrans therefore is amphicleistoblemate. As the hymenial cavity is formed by apoptosis of some hyphae within the primordium, G. penetrans is endocarpic. In more traditional, but less precise terms, G. penetrans is monovelangiocarpic.

Summary • The expression of hydrophobin genes DGH1, DGH2 and DGH3 in the lichenized fruitbody of Dictyonema glabratum (syn. Cora pavonia) is reported here, as well as immunolocalization of the DGH1 protein. • In situ hybridization was conducted to determine expression patterns of hydrophobin genes DGH1, DGH2 and DGH3. The DGH1 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli and used to raise antibodies for immunolocalization of the DGH1 protein. • DGH1 and DGH2 are expressed by hyphae in the photobiont layer and the lower stratum. DGH3 is newly expressed by hyphae in the boundary layer. DGH1 is immunolocalized in the electron-dense outer layer of fungal walls lining gas-filled spaces in the photobiont layer, in aerial hyphae in the gas-filled lower stratum and in the transition zone between the two strata. • Dictyonema glabratum hydrophobins surround wall surfaces in the photobiont layer of the fruitbody. Hydrophobin layers probably function to keep interhyphal spaces water-free, seal the apoplast to enable water translocation, and define strata within the basidiocarp.

The Monotropoideae (Ericaceae) are non-photosynthetic angiosperms that obtain fixed carbon from basidiomycete ectomycorrhizal fungi. In previous work, we showed that each plant species is associated with a single genus or a set of closely related genera of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Here we show that the level of specificity is much higher. We used a molecular phylogenetic approach to contrast specificity patterns among eight plant lineages and three fungal genera. We relied on fungal nuclear internal transcribed spacer (nrITS) sequence data obtained from 161 basidiocarps and 85 monotropoid roots representing 286 sampled plants screened using restriction length polymorphisms. From the phylogenetic placement of fungal symbionts in fungal phylograms, we found that three basal (Sarcodes, Pterospora, Pleuricospora) and one derived lineage (Allotropa) of plants target narrow clades of closely related species groups of fungi, and four derived lineages (Monotropa hypopithys species group, Pityopus) target more distant species groups. Within most plant lineages, geography and photobiont association constrain specificity. Specificity extended further in Pterospora andromedea, in which sequence haplotypes at the plastid trn L-F region of 73 plants were significantly associated with different fungal species groups even in sympatry. These results indicate that both the macro- and microevolution of the Monotropoideae are tightly coupled to their mycorrhizal symbionts.

We determined the size of genets of late-stage ectomycorrhizal fungi in field sites in coastal Northern California. Basidiocarps were collected, mapped and subjected to genetic fingerprinting using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The minimum size estimates for the largest genets of Amanita francheti, Lactarius xanthogalactus and Russula cremoricolor were 1.5, 9.3 and 1.1 m2, respectively. The molecular markers also showed that R. cremoricolor is dimorphic, with red- and white-capped morphotypes of this species forming a continuous population. Our results suggest that spore propagation plays a much more important role in the life history of the Russulaceae in undisturbed forest settings than previously recognized. Fungi appearing late in the succession sequence and systems without obvious disturbance therefore do not necessarily colonize primarily by mycelium.

The originally monotypic genus Rhacophyllus was conceived for an agaric-like fungus that bore sheets of miniature sclerotium-like bodies (lysomeres) in place of lamellae. Subsequently it was demonstrated that a "normal" Coprinus-like teleomorph exists as an alternative state (morph). Following this discovery, most authors have treated Rhacophyllus as an anamorph. Ontogenetic studies indicate that the Rhacophyllus state is a variation on basidiome production. Rhacophyllus apparently was rediscovered and redescribed as a new genus Zerovaemyces, for which a new family, Zerovaemycetaceae, and a new order, Loculomycetes, were also described, all as teleomorphs. Nomenclatural application of these names are analysed, and it is concluded that Rhacophyllus (and Zerovaemyces, Zerovaemnycetaceae) are best considered to be nomina anarmorphosium. These decisions affect the naming of other taxa newly resolved molecularly. An analogous second case of modified basidiomes involves the anamorph Decapitatus gen. nov., described here for the well-known gemmiferous state of Mycena citricolor, Decapitatus flavidus comb. nov. (= Stilbum flavidum).

Twenty-one isolates of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus luteus were screened for their tolerance to the heavy metals Zn, Cd, Cu and Ni, measured as inhibition of radial growth and biomass production. Two populations from even-aged pine stands were investigated: 10 isolates were obtained from an area polluted with high levels of Zn, Cd and Cu, and 11 isolates were obtained from a control population located in a nearby unpolluted area. RFLP patterns of the internal transcribed spacer region of the isolates confirmed the morphological identification of the carpophores. All isolates were maintained on basic medium without elevated metals to avoid phenotypically acquired metal tolerance. The in vitro Zn and Cd tolerance of the S. luteus isolates from the polluted habitat were significantly higher than the tolerances measured in the isolates from the nonpolluted site. This observation suggests that the elevated soil metal concentrations might be responsible for the evolution of adaptive Zn and Cd tolerance. Tolerance was maintained in an isolate not exposed to elevated metals for 3 yr. The two S. luteus populations did not differ in tolerance to Cu and Ni. The mechanisms for the adaptive Zn and Cd tolerance are not identical as there was no correlation between response to the two metals; the most Zn-tolerant isolate was the most sensitive for Cd in the metal-tolerant population. Zinc did not accumulate in basidiocarp tissue, whereas Cd levels in basidiocarps were significantly higher in the population on the polluted site. Inter-simple sequence-repeat fingerprints showed that 90% of the isolates were from different individuals. The genetic variation in the population from the unpolluted site was considerably larger than that observed at the polluted site.

Negative effects of habitat fragmentation (increased isolation and reduced habitat size) affected presence of several beetle species inhabiting Fomes fomentarius (L.) Kickx basidiocarps in a fragmented forest landscape. At the scale of individual trees (tree level), incidence of Cis jacquemarti Mell./C. nitidus (F.) (not distinguished between individuals of these two species, abbreviated C. jacquemarti /nitidus), C. bidentatus (Ol.), C. lineatocribratus Mell., Ennearthron cornutum (Gyll.) (all Coleoptera, Cisidae) and Dorcatoma dresdensis Herbst (Coleoptera, Anobiidae) was reduced with increased habitat isolation and reduced habitat size. Additionally, increased habitat size at a larger scale (forest island level) also gave higher incidence of all species. Some of the microhabitat variables measured influenced upon the presence of the study species. Fallen trees had a higher probability of C. jacquemarti / nitidus presence than standing trees, whilst the opposite was the case for C. bidentatus. There was also increased incidence of C. bidentatus on trees in denser forests and of E. cornutum in grey alder Alnus incana compared with birch trees (Betula spp.). Increased volume of basidiocarps on a tree resulted in a higher number of individuals of C. jacquemarti / nitidus and C. lineatocribratus.

The natural abundance of 13C and 15N was measured in basidiocarps of at least 115 species in 88 genera of ectomycorrhizal, wood-decomposing and litter-decomposing fungi from Japan and Malaysia. The natural abundance of 13C and 15N was also measured in leaves, litter, soil and wood from three different sites. 15N and 13C were enriched in ectomycorrhizal and wood-decomposing fungi, respectively, relative to their substrates. Ectomycorrhizal and wood-decomposing fungi could be distinguished on the basis of their δ13C and δ15N signatures. Although there was high variability in the isotopic composition of fungi, the following isotope- enrichment factors (e, mean±SD) of the fungi relative to substrates were observed: e ectomycorrhizal fungi/litter = 6.1±0.4‰15N e ectomycorrhizal fungi/wood = 1.4±0.8‰13C e wood-decomposing fungi/wood = −0.6±0.7‰15N e wood-decomposing fungi/wood = 3.5±0.9‰13C The basis of isotope fractionation in C metabolism from wood to wood-decomposing fungus is discussed.

As a first attempt to investigate evolutionary patterns of spore size in Agarics, I tested whether this trait was correlated to the size of the fruit-body (basidiocarp). Based on phylogenetically independent contrasts, it was shown that big mushroom species had on average 9% longer, 9% wider and 33% more voluminous spores (all with P < 0.05, one-tailed tests) than small congeneric species (a three-fold difference in cap diameter was used to discriminate big and small mushrooms). It is argued that larger spore size does not consistently confer higher fitness in fungi, owing to aerodynamic constraints. Surprisingly, the cap–spore correlation was strongly lineage-specific. Thus, spore volume correlated significantly with cap diameter in five of 16 large genera (four positive and one negative correlation). Positive cap–spore correlations are interpreted in terms of developmental constraints, mediated by hyphal swelling during cap expansion. The possible mechanisms which can account for the breakdown of this constraint in the majority of genera investigated are discussed., FLWIN, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Effects of isolation, habitat size and several microhabitat variables on presence/ absence of the monophagous Bolitophagus reticulatus (L.) (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) were investigated in 58 forest fragments in an agricultural landscape (15 km 2 ) in south-eastern Norway. All potential habitats of the beetle, dead Fomes fomentarius (L.) Kickx basidiocarps (n = 587), were collected from trees (n = 185) within the study area. The basidiocarps were dissected and the number of B. reticulatus specimens (larvae, pupae and adults) counted. The material was analysed at four distinguishable spatial scales: basidiocarp-, tree-, tree-group- and forest island level. Different patterns of beetle presence emerged at the different scales. Increasing habitat size and decreasing degree of isolation increased the probability of B. reticulatus presence at three (basidiocarp-, tree- and forest island level) and one (tree level) scales, respectively, whilst no such trends were found at the fourth level (tree-group level). Increasing insolation and thereby higher ambient temperatures, indicated by several microhabitat variables, improved the probability of beetle presence amongst the trees. The number of beetle specimens correlated positively with an increase in the habitat size at the tree level.

Sequence-based markers were developed to study the genetic structure and reproductive biology of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus pungens Thiers & Smith in a Bishop pine (Pinus muricata D. Don) forest. Six different basidiome genotypes were found in a 1200 m2 area. Five of the six genotypes were represented by single basidiomes. The remaining genotype comprised 13 basidiomes and covered an area of at least 300 m2, with maximum measured dimensions of 40 m and 14 m. This is the largest genet of an ectomycorrhizal fungus described to date, and is likely the result of vegetative growth, because analysis of single spore isolates eliminates the possibility of genetic identity resulting from either apomixis or fortuitously indistinguishable recombinant genotypes. Genetic analysis also shows that although out-crossing appears to predominate in the population, at least a low percentage (1·4%) of spores are secondarily homothallic. The combination of extensive vegetative growth and abundant fruiting suggests S. pungens utilizes more carbon than might be expected for a species which accounts for

Armillaria tabescens was detected in almond orchards in three different localities of central Greece (Fthiotis county). Mycelial fans of the fungus were observed in the roots and the base of the trunk of dead or dying trees. Symptoms of gummosis were also evident on the bark of infected trees. One of the orchards had been established on land cleared of a Quercus coccifera forest. A. tabescens was identified from basidiocarps developed in vitro, as well as in haploid–haploid mating tests with testers from France. This is the first report of A. tabescens on almond in Europe. Although the fungus has been characterized as a weak parasite or even non-pathogenic to other hosts, it caused considerable damage in almond orchards. In inoculation trials, it was shown that one-year-old almond trees were susceptible to three Armillaria species tested: A. mellea, A. gallica and A. tabescens. The most virulent species in these tests was A. mellea while the least virulent was A. tabescens. The pathogenicity tests verified the ability of A. tabescens to be pathogenic to almond.

The basidiomycete mushroom Hebeloma cylindrosporum is a frequently found pioneer ectomycorrhizal species naturally associated with Pinus pinaster trees growing in coastal sand dune ecosystems along the Atlantic south-west coast of France. The genotypic diversity and spatial structure of three populations of this fungal species have been studied. At each site the basidiocarps were mapped, sampled and propagated as pure mycelial cultures. For each of the isolates, we have studied polymorphisms in the mitochondrial genome, polymorphisms at two different nuclear loci and also fingerprints produced with a multicopy DNA probe. The comparison of the different polymorphisms obtained, with each of the four molecular methods used, allowed the identification of several of the different genets present in each site. In two of the studied sites most of the basidiocarps, which often occurred as dense patches of 10–30 in 1 m2 or less, were of a unique genotype, suggesting the below-ground mycelia to be of a small size (from 50 cm2 to approx. 7 m2 for the larger mycelia) and that the root system of a single Pinus tree can host several genets of the same symbiotic fungus. In the two sites, which were studied again after a 3-year interval, none of the genotypes identified in the first year of sampling was re-identified 3 years later. These results contrast with those reported for other species of soilborne homobasidiomycete species, either ectomycorrhizal, parasitic or saprophytic, showing mostly large clones resulting from the vegetative growth and from persistence of below-ground mycelia. Sexual reproduction through meiospore dispersal seems to play a key role in the structuring of the populations of H. cylindrosporum. Mycelia associated with the root systems seem to be replaced after 1 or a few years, during which basidiocarp differentiation takes place. As opposed to the few other studied ectomycorrhizal species, H. cylindrosporum has the characteristics of ruderal species, with a short life-span adapted to pioneer situations, e.g. to nutrient-poor and unstable sandy soils of coastal sand dunes.

SUMMARY A new technique, autoradiography followed by quantitative image analysis, provides a powerful, non-destructive method for measurement of radiolabel distribution and translocation throughout: fungal mycelia. Using this technique radio caesium was found to be translocated by bulk flow in actively expanding mycelium of S. commune but by diffusion in established mycelium in microcosms. Differentiation of hyphae to form primordia in preparation for basidiocarp production was found to introduce heterogeneity into the distribution of radio caesium in mycelia which could later be reversed by diffusion. Mycelium of S. commune was not conservative for radiocaesium, losing significant amounts to the medium; it is suggested that binding to soil particles may be more significant in terms of long-term retention of this radionuclide in the environment. These processes may account in part for the high and variable concentrations of radiocaesium found in mushrooms in the environment.

DNA sequence polymorphisms among isolates of Crinipellis perniciosa, causing witches' broom disease in several genera and species in the Sterculiaceae, Solanaceae and Bixaceae, were revealed by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) banding patterns. Comparisons were made among isolates from Theobroma cacao (cultivars SCA6 and SVB), T. grandiflorum, T. obovatum, T. subincanum, Herrania sp. (all collected near Belem, Brazil, at three plots within two kilometres of each other), and Bixa orellana and Solanum rugosum (150 and 1440 km from Belem, respectively). Genetic similarities, as determined by Sorensen's coefficient (Sc ij ; fraction of shared bands), ranged from 1.00 (T. cacao SCA6 and T. grandiflorum) to 0.56 (S. rugosum and T. subincanum). Results indicate that proximity is more important than host species for determining the genetic relationships among isolates, that there were two independent sources of inoculum at the site near Belem, and that the isolate from B. orellana is most closely related to the isolate from T. cacao SVB. Comparisons were also made among multispore cultures from different basidiocarps on the same T. cacao SVB broom, as well as monospore cultures from the same S. rugosum basidiocarp. Banding patterns were similar among basidiocarps on the same broom, but differences were detected among monospore cultures from the same basidiocarp

Twenty isolates of Pisolithus, covering u range of hosts, basidiocarp types and geographic locations were compared on their ability to form mycorrhiza in vitro with Eucalyptus grandis and to stimulate seedling growth in vivo. There was a large variation between isolates in the rate of mycorrhizal development and this was used to categorize isolates into six types. Mycorrhiza of seedlings inoculated with type I isolates were the most advanced with a dual-layered mantle, a fully-developed Harris net and radially elongated epidermal cells. Mycorrhiza of seedlings inoculated with types II V isolates were progressively less advanced so that mycorrhiza of type V isolates had a thin single-layered mantle, the Hartig net was only partially developed and the epidermal cells were not elongated. Root lips of seedlings inoculated with type- VI isolates were non-mycorrhizal. Inoculated seedlings were transplanted directly into undrained pots containing a yellow sand deficient in phosphorus. Growth stimulation of E. grandis seedlings in the glasshouse varied greatly between Pisolithus isolates, with dry weight increases ranging from two to 45 times that of the non-inoculated control seedlings. Extent of mycorrhizal development was positively correlated to growth stimulation in the glasshouse and it is proposed that this could be used as an indicator of isolate aggressiveness and consequently the potential of an isolate to promote tree growth.

SUMMARY A detailed investigation of the Liana biotype (L-biotype) of Crinipellis perniciosa (Stahel) Sing, was conducted in Ecuador. Basidiocarps of the L-biotype were consistently found in association with stems or debris of the liana Arrabidaea verrucosa (Standl) A. Gentry, although no symptoms associated with witches’broom disease, were observed. Debris colonized by the L-biotype were often connected via pseudosclerotial pads to living sterns of A. verrucosa. Pairings between 87 isolates obtained from basidiocarp stipe tissues or liana bark cores from three sites permitted 37 somatic compatibility groupings (SCGs) to be defined. In all cases these were found to be very restricted in geographical distribution, a situation which contrasts markedly with the distribution of SCGs in the pathogenic and non-outercrossing eocoa biotype. Mating pairings between single basidiospore isolates confirmed chat the outercrossing mechanism of the L-biotype is muitialletic and that no significant biological barriers to gene flow exist between coastal and Amazonian populations. Several lines of evidence suggested that mycelia belonging to the same SCG (= genet) were isogenic. Correlations between field observations and the distributions of both SCGs and mating type factors art- discussed in relation to patterns of dispersal, establishment and spread of this fungus.

The compressed basidiocarp of a fungus belonging to Geasteraceae (Lycoperdales; Gasteromycetes) was recovered from the plant-bearing Cenozoic strata of the Pi6 de Vaca Formation, Puebla, Mexico. The fossil specimen consists of an open exoperidium with ten triangular rays, and a central, circular endoperidium with an eccentrical ostiole and irregular surface relief. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a delicate reticulum on the surface of rays and on samples of the endoperidium. An acetolyzed fragment of the endoperidium yielded a few fungal spores, and similar spores were also obtained from an acetolyzed rock fragment adjacent to the fossil specimen. The fossil fungus exhibits the characteristics of extant earthstars; morphological comparison between the extant and the fossil earthstar and the type of spores obtained from the endoperidium of the latter indicate its affinity with Geastrum, although uncertainty in diagnostic characters preclude its assignment to a living species. The report of a complete basidiocarp of Geastrum from the Cenozoic of Puebla may contribute greatly to the knowledge about the spatial distribution and evolutionary history of Geasteraceae and Lycoperdales.

The new species, Chalara lichenicola, is characterized by its diminutive, pale brown, 20–47 pm long phialophores arising without any superficial mycelium from the basal parts of the podetium of the lichen Cladonia gracilis as well as from the immature basidiomata of a Tremella sp., likewise parasitic (or saprophytic?) on the same podetia. The phialoconidia are hyaline, unicellular, cylindrical with truncate ends. 2.54.0 × 0.5–0.8 Bunim. It is the first lichenicolous hyphomycete to be included in the form-genus Chalara.

summary Isolates of Suillus plorans (Roll.) Sing., Suillus placidus (Bon.) Sing, and Suillus sibiricus Sing. obtained from basidiocarps collected in two sub-alpine forest regions were subjected to analysis of isozyme expression by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Four unknown strains isolated from tuberculate mycorrhizas of Pinus cembra L. were included in this study. Isozymes, expressed as individual bands, were reproducibly detected in mycelial extracts of 20, 11, and 2 isolates of S. plorans, S. placidus, and S. sibiricus, respectively. Isozyme banding patterns were diagnostic for each species and consistent for each strain tested. Isozyme electrophoresis is suitable for characterizing and fingerprinting individual isolates of Suillus species ectomycorrhizal with Pinus cembra. Enzyme assays for distinguishing between these species are recommended. Isolates from tuberculate mycorrhizas gave isozyme patterns that were consistent with S. plorans. Cluster analyses based on calculated similarity values of isozyme data demonstrated that intraspecific variability exists among isolates of S. plorans and S. placidus. Isozyme variability- was quite different in isolates of S. plorans from two different forest regions.

Callus cultures from cocoa clones reported to have different susceptibilities to Brazilian isolates of Crinipellis perniciosa, causal fungus of witches' broom disease, including Catongo (susceptible). Scavina-6, CAB 64 and CAB 67 (resistant) were inoculated with basidiospores of C. perniciosa and the subsequent development of mycelia was assessed. Generally, on Catongo callus, mycelium similar to that found in green brooms (parasitic type), developed abundantly but on callus from Scavina-6 and the two CAB clones, mycelial growth was relatively poor and tended to be similar to that in dry brooms and on agar media (saprotrophic type). There was often considerable variation in fungal development on individual callus cultures from the same clone, but there was an overall consistency between successive experiments in ranking the callus material in terms of fungal development. However, growth of isolates from Colombia and Trinidad was similar on callus from Scavina-6 which in the field is known to reac differentially to these two isolates. Experiments with isolates from Colombia indicated that inoculum from basidiocarps produced on brooms which were kept for long periods in cabinets to induce fruiting had a decreased ability to colonize callus.

SUMMARY Isolates of Suillus variegatus (Swartz ex Fr.) O. Kuntze and Suillus bovinus (Fr.) O. Kuntze cultured from basidiocarps collected in different geographically located Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests were subjected to an analysis of axenic growth rates, somatic incompatibility and electrophoretic isozyme expression. Intraspecific variation in the radial growth rates and at certain putative enzyme loci was detected in these fungal populations which, after tests for somatic incompatibility, were identified as being composed mainly of different clones. Following a numerical analysis of the isozyme data of seven enzyme systems, considerable interspecific dissimilarity (11% similarity) and intraspecific similarity (> 65% similarity) were detected in these fungi. Isozymes of esterase, peptidase and acid phosphatase were conserved within species but differed between these species enabling their unambiguous identification. Isolates of S. variegatus were found in two main clusters that represented the two forest locations from which they were collected. A single putative locus of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase was found to display isozyroe polymorphism directly related to the forest location of the isolates. No habitat-related isozyme activities could be detected in the isolates of 5. bovinus which, unlike those of S. variegatus, exhibited isozyme expression that was strongly dependent upon the medium. Isolates of S. variegatus and S. botinus identified as originating from the same vegetative clone by somatic incompatibility testing were found to exhibit 100 and 93-97% similarity in their respective isozyme activities. These studies indicate that isozyme analyses in conjunction with somatic incompatibility testing will provide powerful tools for the genetic analysis of ectomycorrhizal communities.

Mycoparasitic and fungicolous fungi are those which attack and colonize other fungal species, and often cause damage to the host fungi. In many cases, at least part of this damage appears to be caused by antifungal metabolites. In spite of such observations, these commonly occurring fungi remain relatively unexplored from a chemical standpoint. As a part of our ongoing studies of mycoparasitic and fungicolous fungi as sources of new antifungal metabolites, a fungicolous isolate of Epicoccum purpurascens (MYC 1097 = NRRL 37031) was selected for investigation. Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb. Ex Schlecht (syn. E. nigrum Link) has been recorded as a colonist of decaying basidiocarps of larger fungi and has been studied as an antagonist that produces antibiotics and/or parasitizes the mycelium of fungal pathogens of crop plants. Studies of an organic extract from cultures of E. purpurascens MYC 1097 afforded two new metabolites: 7-methoxy-4-oxo-chroman-5carboxylic acid methyl ester (1) and 1,3-dihydro-5-methoxy7-methylisobenzofuran (2). The known compounds 4,5,6trihydroxy-7-methyl-3H-isobenzofuran-1-one (3) and 1,3dihydro-4,6-dihydroxy-7-methylisobenzofuran (4) were also obtained. Details of these studies are presented here. The EtOAc extract of solid-substrate fermentation cultures of E. purpurascens was fractionated by Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography. Chromanone metabolite 1 was obtained from the least polar fraction by subsequent silica gel column chromatography. HPLC separation of more polar fractions led to the isolation of the isobenzofuran derivatives 2-4.

A new pigment, laetiporic acid, has been isolated from fruit-bodies of the wood-rotting fungus Laetiporus sulphureus (sulfur shelf). Structure elucidation by application of extensive 2D NMR techniques permitted its identification as a polyene of non-isoprenoid origin. Laetiporic acid, which represents the main pigment in L. sulphureus basidiocarps, bears an unprecedented decaene skeleton as part of its chromophore and, interestingly, contains double bonds with a stable cis configuration.

Summary Basidiocarps of Inonotus obliquus at the margin of a sterile conk were observed on the stem of a living paper birch tree (Betula papyrifera) in North America. The basidiocarps were small in size and similar in shape to basidiocarps formed on potato-dextrose agar medium. This is the first report of basidiocarp formation on the stem of a healthy looking birch.

In November 2006, researchers at the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, first observed symptoms of witches’ broom on cacao trees in the Union Vale, La Dauphine, and Robot estates in Saint Lucia. The disease has since been found in other smallholder plots throughout the island. Estate managers report up to 50% of the cacao trees are infected. Diseased trees have dense, slightly curved proliferations of shoots with shortened internodes (witches’ brooms), arising from the lateral buds. Other symptoms include leaf necrosis, distortion and enlargement of the leaf lamina and veins, and stem swellings. Brooms in cacao are characteristic of infection by the fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa (formerly Crinipellis perniciosa ). In May 2007, samples of older, well-dried brooms were sent to the Global Plant Clinic, UK for confirmation of the pathogen. Aggregations of white saprotrophic hyphae were seen under the bark, which under microscopic examination revealed clamp connections that are characteristic of M. perniciosa . A more definitive morphological identification was obtained by inducing the fungus to produce basidiocarps. Brooms were suspended in a cabinet and subjected to a daily cycle of wetting and drying. The subsequent basdiocarps were pink, tinged with crimson and had a delicate pileus that was radially grooved with fluted edges. Fungal mycelia isolated directly from the brooms were also tested using molecular characterisation. The ITS regions of the rDNA was amplified and sequenced with fungal specific primers ITS6 (Cooke & Duncan, 1997) and ITS4 (White et al ., 1990). The sequence obtained (GenBank Accession No. EU861393) showed greater than 99% homology to 16 strains of this species held in the GenBank database. Witches’ broom of cacao is endemic to the Amazon basin region of South America, but has spread to plantations in the Americas and several Caribbean islands. This fungus can cause up to 90% pod losses and is considered to be one of the main limiting factors for cacao production in South America and the Caribbean islands (Griffith et al ., 1994). The disease has previously been recorded from the Caribbean islands of the Dominican Republic, Grenada, St Vincent and Grenadines and Trinidad and Tobago, but this is the first confirmed report of witches’ broom in cacao from Saint Lucia.

Octavianina is a genus of hypogeous truffle-like fungi belonging to the Russulales (Basidiomycota) currently containing 15 species from Europe, N. America, Asia, and Australasia. The generic type, originally described from Italy, is known from Europe and eastern North America and is frequently found in soil in woodland. The generic name underlies the family name Octavianinaceae, initially invalidly published by Locquin (Taxia Fung. 1: 48. 1974) and subsequently validly published by Pegler & Young (in Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 72: 379. 1979). The family includes a number of other genera (Stephanospora Pat., Sclerogaster E. Hesse and Wakefieldia Corner & Hawker) which are also widely distributed. The generic name Octaviania was introduced by Vittadini with seven named species, but no concept of a "type" was involved. The first species mentioned was 0. sarcomelas Vittad., a name of uncertain application as the type material has not been located (Zeller & Dodge in Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 23: 652. 1936) and therefore has not been used subsequently. The second species listed, 0. variegata Vittad., was recombined as Melanogaster variegatus (Vittad.) Tul. (Fung. Hypog.: 92. 1851). 0. asterosperma Vittad. was given as the third species and this is the one treated by Corda (Anleit. Stud. Mykol.: 107. 1842) as "type" when he wrote, "Octaviania asterosperma diirfte die eigentliche Grundform dieser Gattung bilden". The remaining species that Vittadini included in Octaviania were transferred to Melanogaster Corda soon after. Of the two taxa added to Octaviania by Corda both are now referred to Hydnangium Wallr. It is clear from reference to the original diagnosis by Vittadini for Octaviania that the genus was erected for species with hypogeous basidiomata which become very soft at maturity, form blackish brown spores, have a gleba which finally liquefies, and a strong odour. This defines Melanogaster proposed in the same year by Corda (in Sturm, Deutschl. Fl., Abt. 3, 3: 1. 1831) and which is now conserved.

Dry witches' brooms from cocoa were imported from various areas within Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Trinidad and Venezuela. Basidiocarps of Crinipellis perniciosa were induced to form on these brooms and seedlings of different types of cocoa were inoculated with basidiospores either on the hypocotyl or cotyledon bud. Host reactions were assessed mainly by recording stem base swelling and broom development at the cotyledon node (hypocotyl inoculations) or the extent of swelling and branching of shoots (cotyledon bud inoculations). Results from 30 experiments indicated considerable diversity amongst isolates in inducing disease symptoms, but suggested that two groups or populations of C. perniciosa exist on cultivated cocoa. One group (A), comprising isolates from Bolivia and Pichilingue (Ecuador) and most isolates tested from Colombia, induced severe symptoms on cocoa with Scavina 6 as one parent; the other group (B), comprising isolates from Brazil, Trinidad and Venezuela, did not. Within these groupings variants could be further distinguished by particular host reactions. Isolates from Ecuador, especially from the Oriente, a centre of diversity for Theobroma cacao, showed a range of pathogenicity comparable to that found amongst isolates from cultivated cocoa over a much wider area.

Light initiated fruit body primordia of Coprinus congregatus Bull, ex Fr. grown at relatively high temperature (25°C) require a single dark period or low-temperature induction for completion of fruit-body development. The dark period requirement varied with the temperature regime during the inductive dark period A minimum requirement of 2.5 h was found al 15–20°C. Darkness always promotes development of fruit-body primordial, but cannot, be regarded as an absolute necessity until temperature exceeds about 17.5°C. Normal development of me primordia without darkness was obtained by lowering the temperature to 10°C for 6 h. It appeared that at high temperatures two successive stimuli were required for basidiocarp maturation, a light-off and a subsequent signal light-on signal. On the contrary, at 10°C a single low-temperature signal seemed to be involved. Thus, induction of fruit-body development could be produced by alternative pathways. These developmental features have been extended to other fungi and compared with the flowering processes of some short-day plants.

Formation of vegetative brooms and cushion infections were assessed in relation to host phenology and fructification of Crinipellis perniciosa over 2 years. Vegetative growth occurred in distinct periods or‘flushes’based on an endogenous cycle of 8 weeks. Correlation analysis showed that growth patterns of the sample trees were very similar. There were four main flushes in 1984, three in 1985, and the first two in each year coincided with periods of fruiting of the fungus. Total yearly infection increased from 13% in 1984 to 32% in 1985 when there were more periods considered suitable for infection and production of basidiocarps. Many infections on young vegetative tissue produced more than one hypertrophied shoot (broom) and 11 new infections were produced from every fruiting broom in 1984 compared with 3.2 in 1985. The total number of vegetative brooms increased from about 160 per tree in September 1983 to about 650 in September 1985, despite natural broom loss of 68% every 12 months. Infection of flower buds (cushions) was related to flowering intensity and periodicity, and a small proportion of infected cushions produced brooms. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to methods of control.