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At the end of the twentieth century, increased access to certain technologies and processes, such as 3D scanning, computer-aided design, rapid fabrication and microcircuitry, enabled consumers to become creators of material design. These activities, which collectively came to be known as making, extended across both public and private sectors, including the study of the book. This paper offers an extended discourse on the full range of activities comprising the bibliographical maker movement, which in recent years has coalesced around the idea that maker culture may be employed to enhance our understanding of not only the history but also the future of the book. The application of these new technologies toward critical book studies has proceeded from the practice-based approach to research and instruction first begun under the auspices of the bibliographical press movement in the mid-twentieth century. In keeping with this earlier work, biblio-making is predicated upon the idea that certain kinds of knowledge are best gained through personal experience and experimentation. This article will first outline the benefits of applying 3D technologies to the goals of book history before locating and describing the activities of participating individuals and institutions within three broad categories: holistic, 3D digitisation; recovering historical tools and processes; and creative experiments in book design. As the article demonstrates, the strength and potential of the bibliographical maker movement lies in its widening community of practice and that, by virtue of its being an open-access network of constituents, it is now poised to make a significant and lasting contribution to the study of the book. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eduardas Volteris (1856-1941) is one of the first book theorists in the Eastern European region and developer of the most important memory and higher education institutions of independent Lithuania. This article analyzes the early 20th c. phenomenon of the institutionalization of book science. It attempts to answer the question of how Eduardas Volteris contributed to establishing the very first Eastern European societies of book researchers, to consolidating the sciences of bibliography, bibliology and book science within the realm of academia, and to professionalising of book scholarship. The sources for examination of the social aspects of book science are: documents belonging to the Russian Society of Bibliology, which was active in St. Petersburg in 1899-1931, materials in scholarly serial publications on book science of the early 20th c., theoretical papers published by E. Volteris, and the results of the historical studies on the history of European book science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the analysis of the Vilnius University research papers "Knygotyra" (Book Science) in 1999-2012. he irst volume of "Knygotyra" was published in 1961 under the title "Bibliotekininkystes ir bibliograijos klausimai" (Issues of Librarianship and Bibliography) which was changed to "Knygotyra" in 1970. Today, "Knygotyra" is a mature and recognised journal. It is edited by a team of international editors, which includes researchers from Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Poland, Russia and Lithuania. "Knygotyra" is the only journal of book science in Lithuania and in the Baltic countries. he state and situation of "Knygotyra" in 1970-1998 was analyzed by Vanda Stoniene (2000). he aim of the present article is to reveal the "Knygotyra" status in the recent years (1999-2012) and to compare it with the analysis by V. Stoniene. "Knygotyra" is analyzed in the organizational, structural, thematic, genre publications, authors' activity and other aspects. he analysis concludes that "Knygotyra" keeps its traditions. On the other hand, a scientiic journal is forced to change. It is influenced by the country's general education policy trends, changes in the global world and scientiic research ield. One of the formal proofs of this change is the size of each annual volume, which has increased from 20 quires in 1999 to 44 in 2012. he reasons for this increase are complex: achievements of ancestors, attention to foreign authors, scientiic communication (international conferences in Vilnius), scientific potential of the growing Lithuanian book community. Upon comparing the periods 1970-1998 and 1999-2012, we can state that the editorial bord of "Knygotyra" ensures a balanced preparation, reviewing and publishing of the material, and authoritative foreign scientists in the editorial bord increase the academic prestige of "Knygotyra". After examining the structure and publications by genre and comparing it with the previous analysis by V. Stoniene, we can see that "Knygotyra" is trying to follow traditions to publish actual and problematic topics of book science. In total, 369 articles were analyzed. A comparative analysis revealed that the recent theme of peer-reviewed articles has expanded enormously. In 1970-1998 it was concentrated on the history of book and the history of libraries. We ind that in 1999-2012 the focus of topics was also on traditional book history. his is evidenced by historiographic Lithuanian book science school. In 1999-2012, the number of articles on book theory and methodology increased. Usually, they are written not by Lithuanian authors, but this is one of the ways to ill a gap of these actual topics. A comparative analysis of the published articles revealed that new items such as bibliophilia, book art, handwritten and printed heritage have appeared in "Knygotyra". Such topics as publishing were not popular in 1970-1998 (except the topics of publishing history), in 1999-2012 this topic has been one of the most actual and pressing. his is due to the fact that the Institute of Book Science and Documentation of Vilnius University is pursuing a bachelor's degree and master's degree programs on publishing. Two dissertations on publishing topics have been recently defended. All this shows that the today's situation has inluenced changes of "Knygotyra": new topics of subjects relecting the scientiic relevance of book science (book advertising, digital book, book branding, etc.) have appeared in "Knygotyra". he thematic distribution of articles also testiies to a much broader phenomenon -- the general direction of the development of Lithuanian book science, research topics of the Institute of Book Science and Documentation, the future dissertation topics. All these things show that "Knygotyra" as a scientiic journal has formed its own identity: it follows the publishing traditions, has its core authors, is recognized and appreciated not only in Lithuania, but also in foreign countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses contemporary trends in the history of the book, focusing on both research and teaching. Given the great complexity of the interdisciplinary study of book science (called 'book history' or 'the history of the book' in North America and Britain, and l'histoire du livre in France), students may be confused or overwhelmed when the subject is introduced. They may legitimately ask what they can expect to learn, and how the subject will be organized. This is especially relevant because their generation has grown up with computers and with digital texts, and also with a cultural discourse of globalization. The article considers the challenges of teaching and learning the history of the book from two points of view, both of which have produced rich results in research over the past twenty to thirty years. The first identifies each individual book as a means of communication and cultural transfer; the second incorporates "the book" as a conceptual category in larger historical narratives working from the perspectives of time and space. While both perspectives can be of value for an introduction to this protean subject, neither offers a fully satisfactory response to the challenge of producing a coherent narrative. There is a discussion of transnational approaches to the history of the book; these are compared favourably to the more limited national approach, but the scholarly impulse to undertake the latter is contextualized. The article concludes with a discussion of Digital Humanities and demonstrates how this new field of study can work collaboratively with scholars in book history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first three decades of the nineteenth century is an exclusive period of Vilnius University and Lithuanian science history, when there had been made a tremendous progress under the influence of general rise of science and culture throughout Europe during the Age of Enlightenment. At that time Vilnius university was famous both for its schools of Medicine, Natural and Exact Sciences, and for the School of Humanities - Vilnius Philosophical School, Vilnius Theological School, Vilnius Philological School, together with creators of modern history and scientists who began investigating phenomena of communication and information (i.e. history of book and book sector related subjects, libraries and their activity, book's description). Professor J. Lelewel's two-volume work "Two bibliographic books", which had been printed in Vilnius (1823-1826), became a significant monument of nineteenth century science and contributed to development of book science and other traditional communication and information sciences not only in Lithuania, Poland, but also in other Eastern and Central European countries. After performing content and theoretical part analysis, defining the main issues and their relation with today's classification of Communication and Information sciences, assembling a scholarly image of science that J. Lelewel referred as bibliography (i. e. proving answers to such questions as how did J. Lelewel name the new science, how did he understand its structure, main problems, and links to other sciences), it is concluded that J. Lelewel is not only a father of book science, bibliography, library science, codicology, and paleography, but also a creator of this prime science -- science that is associated with origins of communication and information sciences in Lithuania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An owner of a printing house and a publisher, Martynas Jankus (1858-1946) was a citizen of Germany and a Lithuanian of the East Prussian region. He was an active member of the Lithuanian national movement of the 19th - early 20th century. He supported the opposition of the people of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania which was annexed and integrated into the Russian empire in 1795. When the usage of the Lithuanian language in Latin script was banned in 1864-1904, Martynas Jankus started printing illegal books and newspapers in his printing house and transporting them secretly to the Russian empire. He supported publishing "Auszra" and "Varpas" the most influential newspapers of the national movement. In 1918, after the restoration of the independence of the Republic of Lithuania, this veteran of Lithuanian culture and politics was highly appreciated and attracted close attention of journalists. He publicised quite many memoirs about the publishing and distribution of illegal press, known newspaper editors and book authors, printers, and publishers. The greatest value for historiographic research of the book resides in three generalised memoirs that M. Jankus attempted in his late years. They include the publication "Smuggling of Lithuanian books" („Lietuviškų Kningų Kontrabanda″) which was published in the newspaper "Tėvynė" (1918) edited by Lithuanians in the USA, and two unpublished manuscripts: an exhaustive narrative (27 pages) without a title about the state of the Lithuanian press and language during the period of the growth of the national movement, sent to the professor linguist of the Göttingen university (Germany) Eduard Hermann, and the memoirs "An encyclopedia of my adventures" (,,Mano prietikių enciklopedija″) written in the form of a scholarly encyclopedic dictionary characterizing the acquaintances of M. Jankus. The advantage of the memoirs lays in the point of view of the author who is a direct participant and observer of the factual events, political and social processes, and characters of persons. Foreign researchers appreciate the knowledge of M. Jankus' cooperation with the participants of Byelorusian, Polish, and German national and revolutionary movements and assistance in their literary publishing. On the other hand, although this author wrote many published and unpublished memoirs, they were small in size, written in the journalistic style and quite open. Therefore, they raised contradictions and critical comments of the public. Many did not understand the character of M. Jankus, which was conditioned by differences in cultural and religious traditions based on the civil rights of Prussian citizens, implying a much greater religious and political freedom. His publications and opinions were not self-controlled or limited in any way. The author sincerely depicted the positive and negative sides and character of the national movement and its participants. He was among the first to raise the issues of Polonized and estranged Catholic priests and the vices of the book smuggling as a social phenomenon. The Lithuanian society was not matured enough at his time and did not support him. The dethronement of the movements, communities, and leaders that had a national character was not tolerated during M. Jankus' lifetime; it is not tolerated in modern society, either. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Professor Vanda Stonienė (1932-2008) was not only a scientist of Vilnius University, but also she had a deep interest in books at home. She gathered a personal scientific library which was used in her work. The library contains 379 pieces. The professor's personal library mainly includes periodicals and books, but also other materials such as personal artefacts are found in the collection. Another, family-type, shared library exists at home of V. Stonienė, but for her it was only an additional source of information used to enrich and complement her knowledge. An analysis and interpretation of all the pieces of her personal library are presented in this article. All the material was clasified according to the lingual, thematical, quantative, and chronological principles. The classification met the requirements of the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). The overview of the personal library of V. Stonienė made it possible to better understand her personality, principles of work and life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I shall introduce the research of book history in Finland during the last 300 years. How has book science developed from the eighteenth century onwards, what have been the main themes, and for what specific reasons have they become of central importance in the different periods of book history? And, last but not least, what methods have scholars used in book historical research? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article, the role of the Commission of Book History in the establishment and sustainable development of the Latvian book science is considered. The minutes of meetings and other materials of the Commission (they have been preserved in the National Library of Latvia) give evidence about the establishment of the Commission in 1965, its tasks, chairmen and most active participants, its principles and trends of work, initiated academic activities, discussed research works and upcoming publications, as well as about the abolishment of the Commission in 1990. The article gives information on particular decisions of the Commission, which had a significant impact on the further research of Latvian book history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the influence of the eminent scholar Mikhail Kufaev on the Russian book science. In his works, Kufaev paid particular attention to the philosophy of a book and to the philosophy and methodology of book science, to the history of a book, to bibliosociology, etc. Kufaev, when creating his theory of book science, used the main principles of the doctrine of the Baden school of philosophy. He considered book science to be one of the "ideographic" sciences which study individual phenomena and their historically unique traits as opposed to "nomothet-ic" sciences which study reality from the points of view of the universal phenomena expressed in the laws of their existence. Kufaev emphasized the unique and "ideal" nature of book's origin; he considered each book to be an issue of the activity of the creative self of a person. For him, a book is the thought and the word embodied by a visible sign. The studies of the "material" existence of a book in the "field of communication" and in the "process of communication" belong, in his opinion, to the domain of bibliosociology which treats the social importance of a book and establishes certain laws belonging, therefore, to nomothetic sciences. Kufaev's theory lies within the Western European tradition, and his interesting methodological and theoretical findings were typical also of other eminent Russian experts in book science, such as Nicolai Lisovsky and Alexandr Loviagin. However, the late 1920s and the early 1930s are marked by the beginning of ideolo-gizing the science in Russia; during the 1930s, Kufaev's works were condemned as bourgeous, idealistic, and formalistic. He could not lead a school of book science in the prime of his creative work in the 1920s, because the political and ideological situation in the USSR changed towards the end of the decade. Kufaev's works were strongly criticized; as a result, that he was unfairly neglected. But Kufaev's theoretical propositions have laid the foundations of current Russian book studies. Modern scholars consider his ideas to be topical in the present-day humanitarian science. In their woks, following Kufaev, they study bibliography and book science knowledge; they consider the ideas of an object at the empirical level of studies to be necessary but insufficient for its comprehensive study. Kufaev's followers and pupils rank among many modern bibliologists, so we can consider Mikhail Kufaev's book science school to be very popular in today's Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The academic research on book history in Estonia started in the 1920s when the conditions of an independent state made it possible to develop national science on a full scale. Prior to the emergence of scholarly studies, Estonian intellectuals used to concentrate on the popularisation of sciences. The article deals with the communication of popular knowledge on book history in the Estonian language during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (until 1917). The sample includes textbooks and articles in the periodical press. No separate books on this topic were issued during the period under study. In order to establish the representation of book-historical topics in Estonian textbooks and periodical publications, the study employs the bibliometric approach and thematic analysis. The latter is based on the model elaborated by T. R. Adams and N. Barker. Among textbooks, readers and special history textbooks were chosen for the study. The sample of periodical press includes all the news and articles on the topic in all the Estonian-language newspapers and magazines identified on the basis of the card catalogue of the Archive Library of the Estonian Literary Museum. The results of the study demonstrate that one third of the readers issued during the period under study and nearly all history textbooks included pieces of reading on book and printing history. The first treatments of the topic in periodicals were issued in the 1820s. However, the more regular communication of the topic started in the 1880s. The press gave preference to the Estonian book history and the history of writing. Thus, the treatment of the topics helped to shape the national consciousness of Estonian people, enlightening the origins and development of the national book culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among historical sciences, the history of science is nowadays of particular importance. In parallel to the general history of science, considered autonomous or as part of the science of science, studies on the history of individual scientific disciplines are fast developing. Their significance is not limited to the pure knowledge. In fact, understanding the evolution of a given discipline is an indispensable component in contemporary research and relevant to practical applications. The book science history has become a separate specialty within bibliological research since the mid-20th century. In the following years, various approaches to the subject matter and means of presentation of historical data have gradually developed. In the voluminous multilingual literature one can see the domination of case studies, these being mostly biographic ('bibliology classics'), institutional, and topical. In contrast, there is a relative paucity of synthetic studies aimed at generalizations at national (countrywide) and global levels. This paper offers a review of the most important research problems related to the history of bibliology, with a particular emphasis on Central and Eastern European countries. It includes the proposal of a model construction and content of a future synthetic treatise 'The history of world bibliology'. Such a monumental work should address the following issues: the state-of-the-art of the 'book world' as the basis of the development of bibliological thought, the position of bibliology among other sciences, approaches and views about the subject and scope of book science, cognitive competences of book science, its notional instrumentation and terminology, central research categories, schools in bibliology, relationships among scientists, institutions and organization of science, sources of bibliological knowledge and research methods, the system and typology of book science literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three definitions of marginalia are distinguished: codicological, polygraphic, and "postmanufaturing". Codicologically and polygraphically marginalia are defined as additional information records which appear during the book production process. Marginalia are texts and signs (and miniatures) of a functional nature, which are usually placed behind the main text of the book. The "postmanufacturing" attitude focuses on the marginalia which have an indefinite content and which appear in the process of book functioning in society. The development of marginalia scientific studies started at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain, meanwhile in Lithuania it started in the sixth decade of the 20th century. In the source studies, most has been achieved in the field of initial fixing. Information about marginalia was first recorded in card catalogues, later in old prints and electronic catalogues. Half of them are published as duplicates and facsimiles. Historically, three main marginalia research trends have formed: philological, historical and book science (perceiving book history as its part). Currently, the largest work in investigating marginalia is done by researchers from Great Britain, the USA and Russia. Marginalia are invoked in the investigation of polygraphy, codicology, reading history, book culture and book art. In Lithuania, more researches in history of reading, book culture, book art, records and sign history are conducted. Historiography development possibilities are intended for the research of library, bookbindery, book trade history and biographistic studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systematic research of Latvian book history was started in the second half of the 18th century. At this time, under the influence of Enlightenment ideas, German intelligentsia started to show interest to culture of Latvian peasants, the research methods where empirical. Researchers gathered information about the repertorium. There were publications that summarized news about Latvian book production from the beginning until the 18th century. In the 19th centyry German historians continued summarizing information about Latvian books, they elaborated chronological surveys of published literature. The historian and censor Carl Eduard Napiersky compiled an important retrospective register of Latvian book production Chronologischer Conspect der Lettischen Literatur. It gives information on books from the beginning of Latvian book printing (1586, the date for the first Latvian book) until 1864. Neo-Latvians (the first generation of Latvian national intelligentsia) disclaimed the theoretical ideas and practical foundation of book history exploration used by Germans. Neo- Latvians focused on the important role of books in forming the public opinion. The Riga Latvian Society was founded in 1868 and systematically worked on the evaluation of book production. The book production of each year was regularly discussed in its meetings and sometimes in periodicals. In the second half of the 19th century, the professional research of book history was continued by Baltic Germans. The main methods were a profound summarization of facts and studies in archives. Researches by Baltic German historians formed a rich factographical basis of Latvian book history. These studies retain their scientific importance also nowadays. The Latvian Society of Book Printers and Sellers and Independent Researchers tried to elaborate the theory of book science. Researchers of history of art, literature, education, linguists and others developed separate themes connected to book science. Book as a separate cultural phenomenon and its relations with readers were not analyzed. An important discovery in 1911 allowed to revise the date of the first book printed in Latvian. A Catholic Catechism (1585) was found in the Uppsala library. The date of the first book printed in Latvian was revised in the second half of the 20th century when a protocol from 1525 concerning Latvian books was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers a retrospective overview of the research activities of the Latvian book science since WWII. The article shows the historical context of the research of book history in Latvia during the period of Soviet occupation as well as in exile, starting from the fifties and up to the eighties of the 20th century. The research activities by K. Egle and J. Straubergs were restricted significantly. The exiled researchers studied and published predominantly old Latvian prints found by them in libraries of Western Europe. The research activities by A. Apīnis had an enormous significance for the development of book science as an independent field of science. The article shows the controversial way of the development of book science in Latvia after regaining political independence in 1991. The research topics, the base of scientific sources, the opportunities for international cooperation have become more diverse, but there is still in place the nihilism on the state's level towards humanitarian social sciences in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eighteenth-century European publications focused on book history followed the contemporaneous standards in science and scientific literature, but showed also certain characteristics arising from the state of bibliology itself. Bibliology at that time -- an in statu nascendi discipline-gained its scientific status through historical research. Fairly voluminous European literature on the history of book encompassed a broad spectrum of issues and facts, including the history of writing, manuscripts, printing, bookselling, and libraries. The typological approach to this legacy allows identifying its specific features, evolutionary tendencies, strengths and weaknesses of the early book historiography. In the presentation, various types of 18th-century publications are shown, distinguished by writing and editorial characteristics, form, content, objectives and targets. These include individual and multi-authored works; monographs and syntheses; original writings, compilations and adaptations; publications in different literary forms, such as letters and travelogues (e.g., library travels, Germ. Bibliotheks-reisen; teaching materials (academic textbooks, handbooks); promotional texts; reference works (encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, catalogues); and source collections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigation of book history sources or source research is a book science discipline that investigates the origin of book history sources, their retrieval, classification, evaluation and usage. This is partly a theoretical and partly an applied discipline. The theoretical part of source investigation includes the analysis of the authenticity, reliability, and typology of sources. The applied part of source investigation focuses on the issues of building the basis of sources and their usage. The general solution in the methodology of processing sources is classification. The main concepts of classification are type and sort. A type is perceived as a model of a group of objects (data, work or things) having a general essential property. A sort is defined as an object under classification that meets the type definition by a general or a partial attribute. Scholars of different countries have agreed that a type is determined by the following attributes: 1) time of origin (primary and secondary), 2) information format (written, visual, audial, linguistic, or objects). Book history perceives the second attribute as the most important because, according to it, sources are defined as written and non-written. Written sources are most numerous; depending on their purpose they are grouped into the following sorts: 1) books; 2) official documents; 3) critical and evaluation materials; 4) bibliographies; 5) statistical documents; 6) reference books of institutions and companies, catalogues, address books; 7) archival clerical documents; 8) advertisements of publications; 9) information material of periodicals; 10) diaries; 11) correspondence; 12) memoirs; 13) book research in other sciences; 14) publicistic writings; 15) book ownership marks; 16) other manuscript or printed sources. Non-written sources are less diverse. They include: 1) visual and audial documents; 2) objects of material culture (buildings, equipment, memorials, book culture means). Critical evaluation concerns mainly written sources. It may be internal and external. The first one helps to identify the sort of a source as a document and its attributes, and the latter is related to the significance of a document. A researcher builds his conclusions on the totality of sources and reconstructs the facts and phenomena that belong to the past of a book and serve as a basis for determining the regularities of its development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In bibliology, the methodology of historical studies entirely depends on an applied approach. The author adheres to the historical approach that says that a science development is traced with a kind of its historical logic, with all ways of its development, including those that are dead-end. Based on such approach and starting from G. Peignot's concept of bibliology, the author logically traces trends of bibliology development in Western Europe beginning from the 17th century. The author concludes that by the beginning of the 19th century when Peignot presented his works, in the science there had already been the established corpora of scientific knowledge used by this outstanding French bibliologist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Book history is already a large subject, but it will need to expand still further if it is to survive and flourish. In particular, we need to know more about how, in the past, information was transmitted from place to place and from period to period. We shall need to know about how roads functioned. We shall need to know much more about inland waterways and coastal trade, and about transoceanic routes. The development of postal, banking and credit systems must be studied, as must the development of national and later international telegraphic systems. New forms of information transmission introduced in the last two centuries, such as photography, the telephone, cinema, radio, television, video and the web, need to be better understood. All this requires that we view book history in a much broader context, i. e. as part of the history of communication. The integration of the history of the book and of communication will ensure that the subject will be large enough to be internally consistent, and that it will be too large and too important ever to suffer the fate of smaller and less relevant disciplines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]