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Orthorexia was initially named in 1996, referring to symptoms of patients who were obsessed with healthy eating and food purity, rather than body size and weight as in cases of anorexia nervosa. Recent popular interest in 'clean eating' in twenty-first century Britain, along with the rise of health gurus through expanding social media networks, such as Ella Mills (Deliciously Ella), has been cited as the cause of an outbreak of orthorexia. Current medical discourse on the illness presents it as a modern development in the wider history of eating disorders, with campaigners fighting for its inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This thesis understands orthorexia and clean eating not as something entirely new, dependent on the age of social media, but rather as part of a longer history of obsession with dieting and healthy eating. This work builds on historical studies of dieting and eating disorders to explore the relationship between the individual, the body, wider culture and society, and food - and importantly, how these relationships become disordered. Chapter One explores histories of food, wellness, and dieting. Chapter Two provides a detailed examination of the work of British clean eaters, while Chapter Three discusses the backlash they faced. Chapter Four uses the history of anorexia nervosa to develop an understanding of the creation of eating disorders. Finally, Chapter Five explores orthorexia considering this history. Using a variety of primary sources including cookbooks, self-help literature, newspapers, and social media, it asks the fundamental question: can clean eating and orthorexia be understood as part of a wider history of dieting and disordered eating, furthered by contemporary obsessions with social media and influencers, as current medical literature would suggest? Or rather, is it part of a longer cultural obsession with our own health and diet?

Much of the scholarship on Egypt's 2011 uprising that removed Hosni Mubarak from power has concentrated either on so-called 'high politics' - constitutional changes, elite decision making etc. - or on the social movement dynamics that led to the uprising. Questions of art and culture have generally been relegated to the margins in the study of political change, despite the flourishing of creativity witnessed during the uprising. When art and cultural production have been studied, they are often treated in isolation from politics, as well as from Egypt's wider historical context. The thesis seeks to explore the relationship between aesthetics and politics in Egypt through the following questions: How did aesthetics feature in the 2011 uprising? How did the aesthetics of the uprising relate to a longer history of aesthetics in Egyptian art and culture? What were the political implications of these aesthetics? This thesis seeks to centre art and cultural productions in its study of Egypt's 2011 uprising as an important element of post-2011 political change. Towards this end, the thesis draws on the theoretical work of Jacques Rancière, which argues that politics contains within it an inherently aesthetic dimension. Specifically, his notion of the partage du sensible, or the distribution of the sensible, points to the role of power (what he calls 'the police') in determining what can be seen, heard or spoken and how, in turn, these perceptions create and naturalize hierarchies of social life. Politics, then, involves breaking with this overarching distribution of the sensible. With some exceptions - for instance work by Charles Tripp - few scholars have utilised Rancière's political philosophy to look at politics and aesthetics in the Middle East context. The degree to which Egyptian art and cultural production in the 2011 uprising managed to disrupt the distribution of the sensible and to create new perceptions is central to the thesis. The thesis analyses various cultural production, namely street art, music production and film, both new and re-emergent, that circulated during the events of 2011 and their aftermath. The thesis employs methods from the fields of art history and visual culture, namely semiology and iconography, to 'read' aesthetics in relation to the overarching distribution of the sensible. The thesis focuses in particular on the aesthetics of cultural representations of national identity, gender, class and urban space in terms of the degree to which they reshape perceptions and challenge the existing distribution of the sensible.

People use others to inform their own eating behaviours and weight judgements. This thesis aimed to understand perceptions of social norms and reference groups in relation to eating behaviours and weight judgements. Chapter 1 describes the key concepts and background information to understand the context of the current PhD thesis. It begins by introducing the concept of social norms. Followed by a summary of research studies that have investigated social influences on eating behaviours in general. Next, it discusses the key reference groups that people compare their eating behaviours with and considers social media as a reference group for eating behaviours. It presents research that suggests colleagues are an important reference group for eating behaviours. Chapter 2 presents a systematic review investigating factors affecting eating behaviours in the office-based workforce. Findings suggest colleagues influence people's eating behaviour at work. Based on this, I employed a broader approach and explored some fundamental research questions; How do people make weight judgements? and who do they make weight judgements with? These questions formed the basis of studies in this thesis. Chapter 3 discusses the implications of the systematic review findings and considers colleagues as an important reference group for body weight judgements. It considers what is known about who people compare themselves with to make a weight judgement and what is known about reference groups more generally. Next, a summary of theories of how people make body weight judgments and an introduction to rank based judgements. Then, a summary of the key points covered in chapters one, two and three. Finally, an outline of the objectives and aims of the thesis, as well as an overview of the thesis structure. Chapter 4 provides an overview and background to the methods utilised in this thesis. First, an overview of study design, participant recruitment, and participant characteristics included within each of the studies are presented (studies 1-7). Then, a description of the research methods used within the thesis and discussion of the rationale for the methods used in each study and finally a chapter summary. Chapter 5 examines whether people use perceived rank of weight with others to inform weight judgements and explored reference group composition. Three studies suggest people use rank with others to make a weight judgement, explaining the cognitive mechanisms behind how people make weight judgements. Friends and people the same gender are important reference groups for weight judgements. Chapter 6 investigates whether people's judgments are sensitive to the rank position of a judged stimuli among other stimuli or if they are sensitive to the mean in a comparison context. Judgments of weight in context appear to be sensitive to the rank position of weight relative to the weights of others. Chapter 7 explored perceptions of restrained eating in reference groups (Instagram/UK population). Two studies utilised a rank-based approach as an underlying mechanism to explain people's judgements towards their restrained eating, results were inconclusive. Chapter 8 discusses theoretical and practical implications of all findings. People use rank to make judgements about weight. Findings support rank-based models of human judgment, offering insight into the exact mechanisms by which people judge weight of themselves and others.

Background: The food environment in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has transformed rapidly in recent decades to increase the availability of unhealthy food options. Dietary changes are significantly contributing to adverse environmental impacts and a rapidly increasing burden of obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) co-existing with unresolved undernutrition and communicable disease prevalence. Trends in the consumption of foods, the characteristics of the prevailing food environment, and how individuals interact with their food environment to contribute to the double malnutrition burden in SSA are less understood. The aims of this PhD were to examine secular trends in consumption of food groups important for health in SSA; examine the food environment characteristics in a case study elite urban community in Ghana; investigate how residents of the urban community interact with their food environment to shape dietary behaviours; and explore their willingness and attitudes towards the adoption of healthy and sustainable diets. Methods: A mixed methods approach was adopted as follows: (1) evidence synthesis of literature reporting meat, fruit, and vegetable (MFV) consumption in SSA and (2) of literature reporting ultra-processed foods consumption in SSA; (3) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools were used to collect data on the characteristics of the food environment within University of Ghana campus including the location, count, and distribution of food outlets. An adapted food classification tool was utilized to categorise outlets as NCD-health, NCD-intermediate or NCD-unhealthy; and (4) qualitative focus group discussions (FGDs) and dyadic interviews with best friend pairs (or best friend pair interviews-BFPIs) were used to collect students' perspectives of their interaction with their food environment and how it impacts their dietary practices. The FGDs and BFPIs also gathered students' attitudes to dietary change in relation to health and environmental sustainability. Results: Study components 1 and 2 highlighted that MFV consumption has seen upward trends in SSA populations over the last 38-year period between 1977 and 2015, although fruit and vegetable consumption remain significantly below WHO recommendations. Richer SSA countries are consuming more meat (ß =36.76, p=0.04) and vegetable (ß =43.49, p=0.00) than poorer countries. Further, it suggested that ultra-processed foods (UPFs) consumption in SSA populations has gone up and highlighted key gaps in the UPFs consumption literature in SSA. Urban residents and females appeared to be consuming more UPFs than rural dwellers and males. Study 3 showed that the characteristics of the food environment is suggestive of an obesogenic one, dominated by more NCD-unhealthy than NCD-healthy food-outlets (50.72% vs 39.86%). Food outlets were unevenly distributed over the university foodscape, with more NCD-unhealthy outlets clustering closer to residential than departmental buildings. This difference was statistically significant for food outlets within 100-meter buffer (p=0.00) of residential structures and those within 100 and 500 meters from departmental buildings/lecture halls (p=0.05 and p=0.00, respectively). Study component 4 (n=46) identified a complex interplay of individual and social level factors interacting with food environment characteristics to shape dietary behaviours. Conclusion: The findings of this thesis provide detailed understanding of trends in consumption of food groups important for health and the environmental sustainability in Sub-Saharan Africa. It also provides in-depth understanding of how young adults interact with their food environment and how the food environment influences dietary behaviours, which could be used to inform context and culturally specific interventions.

Asking how we can understand television through the way its people are dressed, this thesis aims to carve out a new field of study and enrich existing interdisciplinary scholarship by arguing for the key role of costume design and fashion in the meaningmaking process of serial television drama and by suggesting new ways to understand their value in terms of style, aesthetics and cultural expression. This project adopts a mixed-methodology approach linking textual analysis of selected case studies with the study of extra-textual material and interviews with costume designers. The chapters of the thesis each offer a different perspective on the subject to understand the workings of costume, fashion and dress in British and American television in relation to television's medium specificity (seriality, address, cultural understandings and technology), cultural notions of dress and fashion, and questions of aesthetics, gender, realism and authenticity. The thesis discusses seemingly 'transparent' as well as more 'spectacular' uses of costume and fashion on television and argues that this needs to be understood differently than in film. This becomes especially clear in examining how costume and fashion underpin seriality. Chapter 1 establishes the groundwork by outlining key issues in the conceptualisation of clothing on television from the 1980s to the 2010s. It re-evaluates assumptions about television and its uses of costume and fashion that have discouraged critical attention. Chapter 2 addresses how crime and legal dramas tread the line between realism and dramatization in the gendered professional dressing of their characters. Chapter 3 argues that style and substance are inextricable in television's creation of meaning, focusing on period costume in recent dramas set in the 1950s-60s. Costume, fashion and dress codes on television structure its meanings and need to be studied as a key form of cultural expression. This thesis begins that work.

The title of this thesis is 'Clergy, the 'Good Death' and Psychological Type'. While the 'good death' presents us with an apparent oxymoron, the researcher proposes that the manner of individual dying can contain ingredients that can make it feel either good or not for the dying person and those surrounding her. The researcher further proposes that the ingredients that make death feel good or not are, like all human behaviour, subject to patterning. Finally, the researcher proposes that psychological type theory provides a potential key to discovering the pattern underlying the various understandings of good death. The thesis is designed to test this hypothesis. The research population selected is Church of England clergy serving in dioceses on the island of Great Britain. The population sample is drawn from Church of England clergy attending residential conferences organised by ten of these dioceses. The researcher uses a quantitative methodology, a questionnaire, as the principal research instrument. This is supplemented by qualitative methodologies, a Delphi Group and semi structured interviews, at the questionnaire design stage. The finished questionnaire is in three parts: first, biographical questions for the research participants; second, the well-evaluated Francis Psychological Type Scales (Francis, 2005), an instrument designed to explore the dichotomies of psychological type theory in large research populations; and third, a new set of scales, which is designed to marry end of life care behaviours to the dichotomies of psychological type theory. This new instrument is called the Knight End of Life Scales (KELS). The data resulting from the questionnaire is then analysed using several routines in SPSS software. The principle statistical findings are: first, that the Francis Psychological Type Scales (Francis, 2005) perform effectively in this new area of psychological type research; and second, that the newly designed set of scales, through comparison with the Francis Psychological Type Scales (Francis, 2005), are argued to be successful in relating end of life care behaviours to the dichotomies of psychological type theory, with the exception of the Sensing and Intuition dichotomy. This finding suggests the eventual possibility of creating a tool to assist health and social care staff in engaging in end of life care conversations.

This research thesis further contributes to the understanding of both psychological influences on dietary choices and bodyweight status, and the impacts of diet interventions on psychological wellbeing. This thesis is split across three chapters, each outlined below: Chapter One A systematic review of the impacts of Mediterranean diet interventions on psychological wellbeing. Narrative synthesis within indicated that Mediterranean diet interventions may lead to a range of improvements in psychological wellbeing across clinical and non-clinical populations. Particular benefits on hedonic and eudaimonic psychological wellbeing are discussed. Clinical implications and future research directions are outlined. Chapter Two A research study examining the influence of implicit (relative to explicit) attitudes toward 'junk food', on habitual consumption of junk food and subsequent risk of overweight/obesity. Results suggested that implicit attitudes are significant and more powerful predictors of habitual consumption of junk food than explicit attitudes, and might influence risk of overweight/obesity. It is concluded that related interventions to improve public health may benefit from targeting implicit attitudes potentially influencing eating behaviours and habits. Chapter Three A personal reflective account of the process of conducting the research outlined in chapter one and two. A 'pragmatist reflective position' is broadly taken in order to aid learning from the research experiences. Following reflection across a range of topics within, numerous benefits to the role of clinical psychologist are highlighted and discussed.

The veil - most commonly known as hijab - is considered as the primary visible marker of a Muslim woman's religious identity and symbol of piety. Thus, its absence not only brings about feelings of conflict for the non-wearer (Izharuddin, 2018), but moreover invites unfair characterisation of their morals and values, as well as discrimination (Fadil, 2011; Othman, 2006; Wagner, Sen, Permanadeli, & Howarth, 2012). In light of this, this study seeks to examine the ways Muslim women construct their identities (with particular focus on religious identity) as women who do not wear the veil. It also investigates the challenges these women face as consequence of their non-veiling. Adopting a social constructionist paradigm, this study draws on almost 20 hours of in-depth interviews with non-veiled Muslim women in Malaysia as its primary data. It brings together interdisciplinary perspectives to analyse identity, by drawing upon Bucholtz and Hall's (2005) sociolinguistic principles for identity, Baxter's (2003) Feminist Poststructuralist Discourse Analysis (FPDA), and intersectionality. To supplement the analysis of the interview data, this study scrutinises a range of selected materials from contemporary media in Malaysia to explore Muslim women's representation with regards to the veil and non-veiling. Findings reveal that in the absence of the hijab, the women who participated in this study constructed themselves as being in alignment, or in contrast with, and/or in ambivalence to their respective ideal of a Muslim woman. In talking about their lives and experiences as non-veiled Muslim women, they 'talk into being' their religious and gender identities, which include (but are not limited to) ethnic and institutional identities. As the women live in Muslim-majority Malaysia that has been experiencing Islamisation since the past four decades, they also divulge stories of personal struggle and challenges they face in various domains of life such as in the family, institutions, and communities.

Background Personality disorder is highly prevalent among people in contact with criminal justice and forensic mental health services. People with an offending history and a personality disorder (personality disordered offenders; PDOs) experience poor health and reoffending outcomes. This impacts the individual concerned, victims of offending, public health and public services. Occupational participation describes undertaking personally meaningful and socially valued activities and roles. It is integral to health and associated with lower risk of reoffending. It is therefore an important outcome for PDOs in the community. Aim and research questions This research aimed to address gaps in the literature to inform development of an intervention to increase occupational participation for PDOs in the community. It answered three questions. For this population: • What factors influence occupational participation? • What are the required components of an intervention to increase occupational participation, and what should these components include? • How can a new intervention be implemented in a natural context for a feasibility study and pilot evaluation? Methods The research consisted of four work packages informed by Medical Research Council guidelines for developing and evaluating complex interventions. It was underpinned by a critical realist philosophy. Patient and Pubic Involvement was integrated throughout, along with an established theory of occupational participation and its associated model, the Model of Human Occupation. Work Package One involved two systematic reviews to establish what is already known about i) the factors that influence occupational participation for PDOs in the community, and ii) the effectiveness of interventions to increase it. The lack of evidence informed the remaining work packages. Work Package Two used a convergent parallel mixed-methods design to identify factors that influence occupational participation. Quantitative and qualitative data collected from interviews with 18 PDOs were analysed separately in three parallel sub-studies. This was followed by a structured integration process. Work Package Three utilised a three-round multi-disciplinary Delphi survey to establish consensus on the content of an intervention. In round one, participants rated the importance and modifiability of the factors, and described best practice to modify these. Responses were converted into statements about the potential effectiveness of different aspects of intervention. Participants rated their agreement in rounds two and three. When 75% of participants agreed with a statement, it was used to specify intervention content. Work Package Four involved specifying the intervention and modelling its outcomes and processes. Established processes to develop a manual, model the intervention, and produce a logic model were applied using the data collected in the previous work packages and additional literature searches. Results and findings Twenty-eight factors influence occupational participation for PDOs in the community. Some factors were not described by the Model of Human Occupation. The same factors influenced occupational participation in activities and roles valued by dominant society (prosocial occupations) and those considered deviant, criminal or harmful (antisocial occupations). Elaboration of the Model would increase its explanatory power with this population. The data supported the use of occupational adaptation to inform intervention development. Delphi participants reached consensus on 121 statements. They rated all 28 factors as above 5/10 for importance, but only eight above 5/10 for modifiability. Consensus was not reached on the integration of digital/internet technology. An intervention manual and a logic model were produced, both suitable for a feasibility study and pilot evaluation. The modelling process generated further questions and indicated that a process evaluation would be a beneficial addition in future research. Conclusions This research established the factors that influence occupational participation for PDOs in the community. It produced consensus on intervention content that is likely to effect change. These results make a unique contribution to knowledge. A complex intervention was developed to increase occupational participation for PDOs in the community. An intervention manual and logic model of the intervention provide a basis for further intervention development and evaluation. These outputs show the aim of the research was achieved.

This thesis explores the experiences of women tattoo artists in what is still a male-dominated tattoo industry. The research is situated within the field of subcultural studies, whilst interjecting the fields of gender and labour. Since the 1990s, there has been a significant increase in women entering the industry as professional tattoo artists in the West; my research explores the ways in which women have had to navigate their position within the industry and how they have negotiated the industry's response to an increase in women artists. Using predominantly interviews by email, I talked to 15 women across the US, UK and Australia about their experiences of entering the industry and maintaining their position as a professional woman in an 'alternative' and sub-cultural occupation. Women have previously and extensively been researched as tattoo consumers but not as producers, and therefore my research considers this transition from tattooee to tattooer, exploring how women manage and navigate this shift in status to find space within the industry. I conceptualise the tattoo industry not only as a sub-cultural space but also as a place of employment and labour. Capital, hierarchies and resistance are problematised by considering them through a gendered lens, with women, femininity and femininities at the forefront of my analysis. Femininity is first considered in the analysis as something to be managed and as a potential barrier to success in a male-dominated field. However, femininity is then conceptualised as something utilised positively to enable change within the field. This creates a degree of contradiction and I analyse it by considering the paradox that women are considered to be too feminine for a male-dominated industry whilst at the same time, need or want to be feminine enough to employ distinctive elements of emotional labour associated with dominant versions of femininity. I also consider ways in which women, and other minority groups are attempting to change the industry and resist the hegemonic masculinities of tattoo culture. I show that women artists place importance on the labour they perform, and ask how queer artists are queering certain areas of the industry. I also look, however, at the ambivalence felt by many of the artists surrounding resistance, in relation to both the industry and the mainstream, and the complex dynamic this creates in and amongst artists, the industry and the mainstream.

The research at hand investigates how home is performed through foodscapes by focusing on the Turkish speaking communities in London. It is based on the premises that food has a strong connection to not just where home is, but how it manifests itself at different scales and registers of food activities in the ‘here and now’ of so-called migrant communities. Home is therefore taken as an act of dwelling that is both constitutive of and constituted by the specificities of the site of habitation. Based on Ingold’s conceptualisation of dwelling perspective, the research argues that the migrant skills deployed around food are trained and practiced in response to the environment of habitation (1993, 2000) as opposed to being imported as innate skills from the country of origin. Explored through the acts of eating, cooking, serving, sharing, celebrating and talking about food puissantly problematises the frameworks of host & guest migrants and home & host nations. Reflecting upon the constitution of home through food therefore has a double function: it liberates migrant homes from the geographical dominance of a past country where they are from and at the same time recognises the site-specific manifestations of their skills “within the current of their involved activity, in the specific relational contexts of their practical engagement with their surroundings” (Ingold 2000, p. 186). The economic, social, cultural and affective mobilisations of the members of Turkish Speaking Community in London display the dynamism and heterogeneity that is inherent to both food and home. The variety of the ways in which the ethnically and linguistically diverse members of this vaguely framed group relate to themselves, to each other, to the city and to the larger discourses of community and nation are explored in this research through performative and multi-sited ethnographic tools. From shopping together with the participants for the dinner ingredients to formal interview settings, from cooking along to temporarily managing an eating out establishment, practicing with and within the contexts of the participants contributed to the knowledge formation for this research. Three interrelated yet distinct foodscape clusters emerged out of this research: Restaurants, British Kebab Awards and the households. The term foodscape here aims at encapsulating the multiscalar, interconnected, always in-the-making and at times inconsistent practices and discourses that emerge in each of these sites. Even though all ethnographic encounters took place in London, in a seemingly singular site, the research gained a multi-sited character due to the different power dynamics, ethnographic requirements, and different imaginaries offered by each of these clusters. These three registers, in their heterogeneity, show that home, looked especially through the lens of food, appears to be re-creative, generative, tactical, site-specific, and multifold series of dwelling acts, rather than being the geographical elsewhere of a migrant. By means of food, the migrant becomes the skillful dweller, and London becomes home.

This thesis explores the period of prominence experienced by wigs and wig wearing in England from the late seventeenth to the latter decades of the eighteenth century. Its primary focus is the ‘raw material’ from which wigs were made: human hair. Being produced from a part of the body placed wigs in a unique position as fashionable items. The act of ‘making’ a wig entailed taking a natural entity growing on the head, and turning it into an intrinsically unnatural artefact. ‘Wearing’ a wig meant for the wearer to invest time in shaving or cutting his own hair. Questions about why this became such an important and fashionable practice are explored here by starting with the hair itself, a topic not generally considered by the extensive literature on eighteenth-century wigs and wig-wearing. My thesis highlights the diverse functions a wig could fulfil, by presenting hair in the context of eighteenth-century understanding of medicine and the body. These functions included protecting the wearer from the elements and potential contagion, projecting a more healthy or youthful appearance, and marking status or profession. This thesis considers how hair - as part of the body - became a highly desirable commodity, and the moral and physical implications this entailed. The physicality of the raw material affected those who traded in human hair and made a living out of producing wigs, as well as those who wore wigs that defined their public image. This thesis challenges existing work, which has tended to focus on gender and dress, by emphasising the connection of hair to the body and how this was translated into the conspicuous fashion for wigs.

‘Mourning Identities: Hillsborough, Diana and the Production of Meaning’ explores the meaning-making processes which contributed to the widespread public mourning that followed the Hillsborough stadium disaster of 1989 and the death of Princess Diana in 1997. It does so by the textual analysis of a sample of the public condolence books signed following these events and by drawing upon autobiographical stories related to each of them produced using the method known as ‘memory work’. Drawing upon a variety of theoretical frameworks, including psychoanalytic, poststructuralist and Bakhtinian influenced dialogics, it suggests that a range of social identities were ‘hailed’ and discursively mobilised in the public mourning events that followed the Hillsborough disaster and the death of Princess Diana. It further suggests that identification is an indispensable and precursory aspect of public mourning, which is summoned and given shape by epistolary and narrative practices of the self. Public mourning of the sort considered here is theorised along two principal lines: the iconic and the totemic. The former, it is argued, can be seen to relate to the largely feminine global structures of feeling through which the public mourning for Princess Diana were articulated, whilst the latter can be seen to relate to the largely masculine local structures of feeling through which the public mourning following the Hillsborough disaster were configured. In turn, it suggests that aspects of resistance to the public mourning following each of the events considered as case studies here can in themselves be considered as aspects of mourning, albeit for something other than the obvious referents of loss during these events. It further points to the situated social identity of the researcher as both instrumental not only to the motivation for, but to the outcomes of social research.

This thesis is an empirical study of the sociability and the public sphere in the Festival of the Fallas of Valencia (Mediterranean Spain). It argues (a) that festive traditions are not necessarily opposed to modernity but may be successfully interwoven with present-day experience, (b) that festive traditions have a 'festive sociability' which is 'reflexive' and (c) that this reflexivity generates a distinctive public sphere. Extensive interviews, participant observation and involvement in the work of several Fallas show that they are community associations which permanently deploy festive sociability in preparing an annual Festivity which reaches its climax between the 15th and 19th of March. These communities are widespread throughout the Valencian Region and beyond. There are 750 associations which, in the City of Valencia alone, have more than 100,000 members. Their main objective is to construct the gigantic satirical and artistic monuments which are burned on the night of the 19th of March in celebration of St. Joseph's Day. A network of close families and groups of friends are the main agents of the festive tradition of the Fallas; and the core mechanisms for transmitting it across space and time are play, humour, comensalism and 'festive work'. The tradition is flexible enough to link its permanent festive sociability with modem institutions such as schools or the City Council and rich enough to include modem economics, administration and voluntary associationalism in its community based action. This festive sociability makes selective use of forms of modem, critical reflexivity which feed into its corresponding public sphere, thereby preserving and modernising a form of European popular culture heavily influenced by Carnival. Fallas' sociable debates, their reflexive relation with the mass media, their satirical and critical parades with fancy dress and their satirical, artistic and ephemeral monuments are the centre of this public sphere. It incorporates modern experiences into a tradition which structures its social criticism in terms of myths and the symbols of the grotesque body.

This thesis represents the most detailed investigation into English royal funeral ceremonies 1570-1625 yet undertaken. It builds on earlier scholarship dealing with the French royal funeral and with the social history of death and burial in early modern England. When gathering my source material I consulted manuscript and early printed material at the British Library, the Bodleian Library, the Library of Westminster Abbey, the College of Arms and the Bibliothèque Nationale. My approach is to consider royal funeral rituals in terms of performance. I endeavour to place each of the royal funerals in its immediate performance and broader cultural context. The evidence is analysed using an approach which seeks to take account of both the political and affective implications of ritual. Preliminary chapters establish the form of the English heraldic funeral and the French royal funeral, and assess the impact of the English Reformation on funeral ritual. I go on to discuss the funerals of Mary Stuart, Elizabeth I, Prince Henry Stuart, Anne of Denmark and James I respectively. Included is a bridging chapter which briefly summarises the religious and cultural changes which took place under James I and their impact on funeral ritual. Royal funerals are seen as flexible rather than fixed. They were modified to meet changing political needs but such modifications were always in accord with broader cultural trends. My thesis demonstrates that royal funeral rituals were highly dependent on their performance and cultural contexts. The Epilogue looks at the implications my research has for readings of stage representations of funeral ritual and funeral symbolism in Elizabethan and Jacobean drama. I show that royal funerals formed an important aspect of playhouse audience experience. Dramatists exploited that experience to show the operative nature of funeral ritual performance and the potency of its symbols for political propaganda.

Economic theory is capable of explaining the development and persistence of social conventions, such as conventions of cooperation, in the face of circumstances characterised by the Prisoners’ Dilemma. Such conventions can arise either because of labelling and the iterated nature of the playing of the game or because of related overlapping activities. A social convention becomes a social norm or custom when it acquires moral forces such as guilt and resentment at its violation. Consider the following example. I am in line for a ticket for the next train from my local station. The other people in the queue are hoping to catch the same train, the departure of which is imminent. The local social convention is one of respecting the order of arrival in the queue, but late-comers to the line have an incentive to jump the queue. If the queue breaks up into a melee, then the resulting crush around the ticket booth causes delay and implies that fewer people will catch the train. Do I jump line? If this is a repeated game played every day by the same people, then I'm likely to stay in line: in the longer run I have a vested interest in the survival of the social convention. However, if then I'm abroad on holiday and find myself in exactly the same position but amongst strangers whom I will never expect to meet again, will I respect equally their local social convention of respecting the order of the queue? If I'm narrowly rational I will not. But if for me the social convention which I recognise and respect at home five days a week has acquired some moral force, then I will feel too guilty to break out of line and consequently I will risk missing my train. The social convention has become a social norm or custom which I follow because of my experience and my socio-psychological characteristics against my narrowly rational judgement. In this thesis we shall be developing a model in which agents' actions are influenced by the utility they derive from two related sources. The first is the utility derived from conforming with the behaviour of others. We shall refer to this as solidarity-derived utility. The second is the utility gained from obeying a social norm or custom (or the disutility suffered from breaking that custom). We take the existence of the social custom as given. This is why we distinguish between a social convention which is derivable from the postulates of rationality and a social custom which we treat as given (as are preferences) by non-rational information. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 2. Thereafter our chief concern is to integrate the treatment of social customs into more mainstream economic analysis. Our main focus is on the question of what our analysis contributes to the economic theory of the trade union. There are a number of reasons for the choice of this context as the medium for discussion of the model. First, union membership is a classic example of a collective action in which the public good provided is characterised by nonexclusion. Second, empirical evidence points to the widespread existence of the union open shop in which membership is not compulsory. Third, survey and other evidence suggests the relevance of social custom forces as determinants of union membership by individuals. Fourth, union membership is an important topic in its own right, especially in the light of quite dramatic changes in aggregate union density in the UK and elsewhere, and yet not one satisfactorily addressed in the theoretical literature on trade unions. Finally, union membership is likely to be an important influence on labour market outcomes and therefore on macroeconomic performance.

This thesis is about popular rejoicing and public ritual in Norwich and Coventry from the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 to the Reform of the Municipal Corporations in 1835. It is distinctive in at least two ways; first in its attention to the local context, and second in its examination of public festivity as a separate, but not an isolated, cultural form. Previous studies of the subject have generally looked at rejoicing and ritual as but one strand of a larger, fairly amorphous, popular culture and done so on a national or even a continental level. The study is divided into three parts. The first is largely descriptive; an account of the festive events, whether on the annual holiday calendar or not, which took place in Norwich and Coventry at or about 1750. This not only sets the scene for the analysis which follows, it also indicates the extent to which rejoicing and ritual was subject to social, political and economic change. That this was so will become clear in the second part of this study which identifies the three major developments to affect the conduct of and attitudes to public festivity at Norwich and Coventry in this period; commercialisation, political change and the divergence of polite and plebeian cultures. The extent to which the impact of these developments varied between the two cities is also explored in this section, as it is in part three of the thesis which is made of two case studies, one of the Norwich Guild and the other of the Coventry Show Fair. The very different form and fortune of these two events will be seen to confirm the importance of studying rejoicing and ritual in relation to the most immediate context in which it was performed.