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The determinants of livelihood diversification have been studied by several researchers globally. However, these factors are not well understood in the ANDM and KCDM, because they are given little attention. The specific objective of the study was to examine the determinants of livelihood diversification in ANDM and KCDM. The cross-sectional dataset was collected from 268 and 264 participants who were randomly selected in ANDM and KCDM, respectively. A structured questionnaire was utilized to collect data on socio-economic and demographic factors among small-scale rural farmers in ANDM and KCDM. The data collection commenced in March to April 2022 in KCDM and started in August to September 2022 in ANDM. Stata version 14.0 was employed to estimate a Quantile regression. The results show that 66.04% of participants in ANDM were female-headed households, whereas 53.79% in KCDM were headed by males. The findings from a Quantile regression show that livelihood diversification was influenced by the household head's gender, age, marital status, access to extension services, access to credit, employment status, food security, education, household size, farm size, poverty status, farm experience, and improved seeds. To promote livelihood diversification, policymakers should create policies that will target all factors that are significant in the study. Impact statement: The determinants of livelihood diversification have been explored by researchers on a global scale. However, these factors are not well recognized in the ANDM and KCDM regions as they are given little attention. The primary focus of the study was to analyze the determinants of livelihood diversification in ANDM and KCDM. A Quantile regression show that livelihood diversification was influenced by the household head's gender, age, marital status, access to extension services, access to credit, employment status, food security, education, household size, farm size, poverty status, farm experience, and improved seeds. To enhance livelihood diversification, policymakers should design policies that focus on all significant factors outlined in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Irrigation is widely accepted as an effective adaptive management strategy for small-scale farmers of traditional rain-fed crops in areas experiencing climate change. These changes include timing of onset of the rainy season and the amount and intensity of rainfall—both issues of concern to rural farmers in northern Ghana. Despite obvious benefits, it is not apparent if farmers in this area perceive irrigation as a viable or attainable option to deal with potential food insecurity related to climate change. In this article, we examine three main issues: (1) dry spells during the early parts of the farming season, (2) impacts of these dry spells on farming systems, and (3) farmer adaptation through different agricultural water management practices. A geographic information system and remote sensing analysis using Landsat 8 and field Global Positioning System data supports findings from seventy-two in-depth interviews with smallholder farmers. Results from this integrated assessment reveal sociocultural and physical barriers to manual irrigation, including labor needs, water source proximity, and size of operational land holding. Increasing climate variability in this region will necessitate adaptation by local farmers; however, we argue that irrigation projects should not be initiated without detailed understanding of local sociocultural contexts. Effectively moving water from source to crop will require integrative knowledge of local hydrogeology and sociocultural norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Local knowledge on climatic conditions which hitherto was used to predict the likelihood of weather outcomes is under threat of extinction due to lack of documentation coupled with a gradual decline in its knowledge transfer. Using participatory and ethnographic research approaches including focus groups discussion, key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, and purposively selecting small-scale farmers in the Upper East Region of Ghana, this study has identified key local climatic knowledge that would contribute to achieving sustainable agro-ecological practices. The study found that plant phenology like the sprouting of Faidherbia albida and the presence of Ficus carica are relevant for sustainable agro-ecological practices. Also, the frequency or otherwise of rains and the colour (perceived) and appearance of the water of the first rain at the onset of the rainy season presupposes the likelihood of the rainfall pattern in that year. Some animal and bird behaviour such as the movement of migratory birds, which was used to predict the likelihood of weather patterns or seasons, has been adversely affected by the changing climatic conditions. This knowledge is very relevant for agro-ecological practices since it enables farmers to plan ahead of seasons, which contributes to improving the adaptive capacity of small-scale farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigated household-level food security for Ghana, Liberia, and Senegal. Different agroclimatic, ecological, social, and farming conditions in West Africa were represented. Using data-driven Random Forest and Chi-Square Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) decision tree methodology, this study classified 644 Ghanaian, 323 Liberian, and 510 Senegalese households for comparison and interpretation on food security. The predictors growing Liberian and Senegalese decision trees imply community support, diverse selling channels outside villages, resolving the dispute over farmland, and increasing community-level investment for food availability and access demonstrate household food security. Predictor importance on food security for Ghana highlighted the role of independent producers and food suppliers toward stability. Household food security or insecurity was distinguished by location-specific and gender-led households in Liberia and Senegal. Practically, the results presented a need to step-up agricultural education and extension based on an empirical field survey and its interpretations. The results can add considerations to the role of farming households as independent and individual suppliers and consumers to long-standing dimensions of food security, i.e., food availability, access, and stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shrimp polyculture is an important activity in South East Asia, providing a livelihood and food for small-scale farmers. However, farmers are facing challenges due to increasing environmental problems in rivers used as the primary source of water in aquaculture pond production. To deal with these challenges, farmers have organized co-management communities, which gives them a stronger voice among river users. This study investigates the effects of co-management on technical efficiency and environmental stressors using a second-stage Data Envelopment Analysis model. Environmental stressors are identified through interviews with 306 farmers in eight sub-districts, of which two are practicing co-management. The results show that farmers in areas with co-management have relatively high technical efficiency after taking other drivers into account. Furthermore, the farmer's technical efficiency seems to be less affected by the identified environmental stressors. In conclusion, co-management could be used as a tool to improve technical efficiency and limit stress factors for farmers. It could be initiated by the farmers themselves or by policymakers and natural resource managers and could improve the livelihoods of small-scale shrimp polyculture farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought frequency is expected to increase in the coming decades due to climate change. Droughts are one of the most devastating natural disasters affecting food production, water resources and causing widespread human and animal mortalities. Sub-Saharan Africa is considered the most vulnerable region to climate change, due to low rainfall, long dry seasons and high levels of poverty. A systematic approach was used to search for published literature from 2008 to 2018 on the impacts of droughts on small-scale farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa from Ebscohost, Google Scholar and Web of Science internet search engines. To acquire relevant studies, the following keywords and Boolean operation combinations were used: GIS AND Remote Sensing OR drought OR small-scale farmers OR sub-Saharan Africa and only studies from 2008 to 2018 were selected. The impacts of droughts are far-reaching and affect the environment, societies and the economy of a country. There is limited reliable and comprehensive information on the impacts of droughts, which calls for research aimed at explaining the impacts of effect and how they can be predicted and mitigated. Improving drought preparedness and mitigation is an important precondition reducing the vulnerability of small-scale farmers and rural communities to the impacts of droughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the role played by small-scale farmers in agricultural production, majority of these farmers' households in developing countries consume diets that are of low quality. This consumption of poor quality diets is a major factor contributing to the high burden of malnutrition. Farm enterprise diversification as one of nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions, improve nutritional status by supporting consumption of nutritious foods. This study aimed at examining the role of farm enterprise diversity on household diet quality among small-scale farmers in two low potential areas in Kenya. The cross-sectional study targeted 320 randomly selected small–scale farmers' households in Makueni and Nyando Sub-Counties and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data. From the results, livestock count had a positive significant effect on household diet quality at 5% significance level. This finding indicates that household dietary diversity (HDD) can also be achieved through the income pathway since people can purchase a variety of other foods from the market using the income they earn. Thus, there is a need to sensitize small-scale farmers on the importance of producing a variety of crops and animal species for household consumption and sale for improved HDD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the years, climate change and variability have led to a substantial decline in agricultural productivity in both developing and developed countries. Small-scale farmers are particularly at risk. The responses of farmers to climate change and variability are often dependent on their perceptions of climate change. Therefore, it is important to understand the nature of adaptation strategies that are feasible and practised at farm level. Despite this need, in some developing countries such as Botswana, there is a dearth of studies that use mixed research methods to critically analyse farmers' perceptions of climate change and their adaptation strategies. This study uses empirical data collected from farming households in the Ngamiland East region of Botswana to (i) analyse the perceptions of small-scale farmers regarding climate change, (ii) analyse small-scale farmers' adaptation strategies to climate change, and (iii) determine constraints faced by farmers in adapting to climate change and variability. The results show that there is a direct relationship between the farmers' adaptation strategies and education. Unlike findings from other studies, the results of the study show that there is no significant relationship between gender and farmers' adaptation strategies. The results verify that there is high heterogeneity characterising the case studies, making adaptation studies case-specific. Farmers in the Ngamiland region are faced with several challenges in their attempt to adapt to climate change. Chief among the constraints is the lack of financial resources and lack of appropriate skills. The government should empower the farmers through provision of subsidies and skills training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While Plutella xylostella (L.) is a cosmopolitan pest of brassica crops, little is known about small-scale farmers' knowledge, perceptions and practices (KPPs) in response to the pest's increasing status. Using a non-probability sampling method, face to face interviews were conducted based on a structured questionnaire. Botswana brassica farmers were interviewed to understand current KPPs. Plutella xylostella emerged as a major challenge in brassica production with highest prevalence in the hot-dry spring season. Farmers relied on 41 different hazardous synthetic pesticides that were applied injudiciously with prophylactic sprays, regardless of acute and chronic health effects or environmental risk potential. Most farmers neither knew (62.7%) nor had first-hand experience (93.1%) on Integrated Pest Management or biological control methods (79.4%), including the use of biopesticides (70.6%). There were also knowledge gaps of P. xylostella natural enemies and other non-chemical pest management alternatives, fundamental components of IPM. Our findings underline human and environmental welfare concerns and sustainability challenges in pesticide use practices in small-scale brassica production systems and the urgent need for more benign alternative pest management options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adoption of research-based rainfall variability management strategies among small-scale farmers in South Africa is limited. A study was therefore conducted to improve understanding of rainfall variability management using the farm typology, and snowball and focus group discussion approaches. Farmers across all categories highlighted experiencing changing climate patterns. Resource-constrained farmers utilized non-finance demanding strategies like mulch. Mixed farming households utilized crop and livestock-based strategies such as manure. All farmers highlighted inadequate funding as a challenge. Enterprising pensioners and horticulture-dependent farmers cited lack of climate information as an impediment. Combining this knowledge with seasonal forecast information potentially results in improved climate variability management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article assesses two models of dairy production and distribution to the large city of Dar es Salaam. One is urban and peri-urban raw milk production through territorial markets and the symbiotic food system and the other a dairy value chain intervention. The raw milk system is remarkably resilient and gives lower prices to milk drinkers and better returns to small-scale farmers. The value chain intervention provides opportunities for some dairy farmers but can't compete and favors corporate entities less aligned with most farmers' and city residents' interests. Policy maker's preference for value chain interventions appears to be ideological as it is not justified by the outcomes, but support for alternatives is growing and needs to be built on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The commercial opportunities for sengon (Paraserianthes falcatariaL. Nielsen) are expanding rapidly in Indonesia, but there remains a lack of supply for the processing industry of the desired volume and quality of timber for processing from this fast-grown tree. This article discusses recent analysis of the value chain of sengon in Indonesia to determine (i) who the stakeholders were and how each added value, and (ii) how the benefits were distributed among stakeholders. Information was collected from a mix of farmers (as tree growers) and other actors involved in the value chain. The research revealed two broad types of value chains for sengon–‘direct’ and ‘traditional’, with the potential increased income for farmers being as high as 35% when they use the direct approach, compared to the traditional approach. As expected, the further ‘downstream’ the position of the stakeholder in the value chain, the greater the monetary value added to the sengon timber and subsequent products. If farmers were to acquire a greater understanding of the market dynamics for sengon, they could better target the sale of their forest products to specific market segments and make forestry a more profitable enterprise. While village traders in the traditional value chain play an important role connecting small-scale tree growers to commercial markets, the sustained viability of their role is uncertain if more farmers adopt the ‘direct’ approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Millions of small-scale farmers on the African continent save and exchange the seed of their traditional crops, yet the social and cultural values of these systems remain under-researched. Through ethnographic research conducted in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, this study sets out to improve understanding about the mechanisms and significance of traditional seed exchange networks. Findings suggest that traditional crops are central; their seed is highly valued; and systems of exchange play complex and nuanced roles. Critical for food sovereignty, these systems act as a back-up in the case of harvest failure, and enhance social cohesion through strengthening community and familial ties. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose:This study examines the suitability of the system of rice intensification (SRI) for diverse small-scale farmers in Tanzania by exploring if poor and non-poor farmers adopt the system to a similar extent. Originality:The suitability of low-external input technologies such as SRI for diverse African farmers is a contentious issue. Existing studies suggest that adoption may be skewed away from poorer farmers, but no studies have explicitly categorized farmers who participate in adoption of SRI. Methods:Farmers exposed to SRI were randomly surveyed. Sample farmers were categorized into three socioeconomic groups – wealthier, middle-wealth, and poorer – using factor and cluster analysis approaches. Wealth category is then used in a logit model to determine probabilities of adopting SRI practices across the different groups. Findings:The results indicate that middle-wealth group adopt SRI to a greater extent compared to the wealthier and poorer groups. The extent of adoption by wealthier and poorer groups is similar, although constraining circumstances differ. Access to factors that consistently explained adoption: contact with extension services, land with water, and labor, vary systematically among groups. Theoretical implication:Low adoption is often assumed on reduced exposure to a technology, and non-adopters are expected to eventually adopt. The results suggest, however, that farmers, who have not adopted, may not do so, even after being exposed. SRI as a package does not fit their socioeconomic conditions. Practical implications:To support adoption across all wealth categories, extension should focus on promoting individual practices rather than the package to enable farmers adopt practices that fit their socioeconomic characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tef is the most important crop in Ethiopia and is well-adapted to growing environments, but grain yields are low. The government is therefore promoting the adoption of improved varieties, inorganic fertilizers and new planting techniques. This study gathered information on the use of new agronomic practices and barriers to their adoption through a semi-structured questionnaire administered to 60 farmers or respondents from each of 4 districts of Tigray region in northern Ethiopia viz Laelay-Maichew, Medebay-Zana, Ahferom and Alamata. Data were coded and analysed using SPSS software. Except for animal feed and crop rotation, there were significant differences between districts in the relative importance of several criteria for different uses. Improved varieties were used by the majority of respondents in all districts and fertilizers in all except Alamata where severe moisture stress dictated the choice of variety and reduced fertilizer application. Weed control was mainly by hand except in Alamata where chemical control was common because of the predominance of broad-leaved weeds. Transplanting maximized the yield of tef, but a cost–benefit analysis showed that row sowing was more profitable. The study concluded that new varieties better adapted to the likelihood of reduced rainfall and that respond efficiently to fertilizer inputs need to be developed. Until suitable technologies are available, high labour costs would in part dictate some agronomic practices, even if this led to lower yields. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Conservation agriculture (CA) is defined as a system comprising no or minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover, and crop species diversification [FAO. (2014). What is Conservation Agriculture? FAO CA website, consulted on 15.09.2014. Retrieved September 15, 2014, fromhttp://www.fao.org/ag/ca/1a.html]. The vast majority of medium- and large-scale farmers in Paraguay and neighbouring countries (Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay) who use tractor-based farming systems have moved from conventional agriculture and adopted CA through no-tillage technologies. Among this farmer type, very few wish to return to the old system of tillage agriculture. However, despite massive efforts to transmit the technology to small-scale farmers by development aid projects and local governments, widespread adoption of CA has not happened on farms that use animal traction or manual farming systems; in fact significant dis-adoption of CA practices by smallholders has occurred. Some of the reasons for this dynamic are analysed in this paper. The reasons for dis-adoption by small-scale farmers can be generally divided into two groups. One group has to do with the fact that, comparatively, small-scale farmers are less able to cope with the factors related to CA (e.g. degraded soils, recuperating and maintaining soil fertility and know-how) than medium- and large-scale farmers. The second group of reasons has to do with the approaches and strategies that development aid agencies and local governments have taken towards small-scale farmers, which have influenced small-scale farmers’ ability to adopt and maintain CA practices. Small-scale farmers’ main asset is the soil and the CA/no-tillage system is a knowledge-based, learning-intensive system. However, despite the technical support provided by aid agencies and local governments, small-scale farmers often lack a deeper understanding of the CA concepts and practices. This is attributable to the short- to medium-term and rather conservative transfer-of-technology approaches that have been applied by development aid agency and local government programmes over the years, without any changes and without adaptive research. The latter can be derived, for instance, from the accountability of results to donor agencies or the one-size-fits-all approach applied in order to achieve ‘numbers’. One consequence of this is that ownership by and empowerment of farmers is often absent among dis-adopters. It therefore seems more suitable to apply long term, adaptable approaches to CA with smallholders. The lessons learned in Paraguay may well serve to properly direct future development intervention efforts in this country and also serve to mend development strategies in other countries in South and Central America, Africa or Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The carbon market is touted as offering developing countries major new opportunities to achieve sustainable development while simultaneously helping the global community to combat climate change. The prospect is that implementing carbon offset projects and programmes can generate tradable carbon credits while simultaneously delivering development benefits to participating communities. In least developed countries, however, this promise remains largely unfulfilled. Work is underway to bridge this gap via measures like streamlining project development and providing capacity building in target countries, yet progress remains slow. Based on focus group discussions, the paper conveys comments about this prospect and constraints to its realization from seasoned rural development practitioners in Madagascar and Mali who have shown interest in carbon project development. Their perspective is critical yet constructive, and could help guide reforms of existing carbon market instruments and the design of new climate finance mechanisms. It also provides a valuable contribution to ongoing debates regarding the potential significance of the carbon market for poor farmers. The consensus among these practitioners is that the promise of this market for these farmers is real, but the current market structure largely scuppers this potential. They call for urgent reform of market access modalities, so this opportunity can be captured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three sweet potato cultivars (A40, A45 and 199062.1) were planted in three small-scale farms located under different agro-ecological zones of KwaZulu-Natal. The objective was to assess growth, physiological responses and yield of the sweet potato cultivars under low-input agricultural system and different environmental conditions. Sweet potato planted at Richards Bay (28°19'S; 32°06E), a coastal sandy soil location, recorded low stomatal conductance(SC; 102.2 m moles m−2s−1) and chlorophyll content index (CCI; 29.4). This consequently resulted in reduced vine length, leaf number and branching of sweet potato plants. Environmental conditions in that location (Richards Bay) such as high evapotranspiration, high temperatures and low water retention capacity of sandy soils created drought stress condition. This caused reduction in photosynthetic activities and translocation to the harvestable plant parts. The other two locations (Deepdale at 28°01'S; 28°99'E and Umbumbulu at 29°98'S; 30°70'E) located further from the coast and characterized by clayey soils recorded higher SC and CCI. Branching and number of leaves were significantly influenced by locations and growing season while vine length varied with locations, indicating specific varietal adaptation. Biomass and storage root yield followed a similar trend as plant growth and physiology. Richards Bay recorded very low biomass and storage root yield (5.4 and 5.0 t ha−1) in both seasons while Deepdale recorded higher yields (42.0 t ha−1) during the first growing season. Yields reduced by 67% (13.6 t ha−1) in the second season. Storage root yields from Umbumbulu were stable in both growing seasons (29.4 and 28 t ha−1during seasons one and two, respectively). Adding fertilizer only improved storage roots yield in Richards Bay, otherwise cultural practises were responsible for storage root yield increases in Deepdale and Umbumbulu. Orange-fleshed sweet potato cultivar A45 showed good environmental plasticity while cultivar 199062.1 responded well to fertilizer application. This indicated its suitability for use in food security programmes under low-input agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose:The objective of the study was to determine the level and determinants of demand for extension services among small-scale maize farmers in Kenya. Design/methodology/approach:Based on an exploratory research design, primary data were collected from a sample of 352 households through face-to-face interviews. Focus group discussions were used to collect contextual data. The sample comprised of organic and conventional small-scale maize farmers in Bungoma County, Kenya. In data analyses, descriptive statistics and a zero inflated negative binomial regression were employed. Findings:Results indicate that organic farmers had a mean of three contacts with extension providers compared to conventional farmers who had a mean of one contact during the year. Further, age of the household head, education level, farming experience, amount of off-farm income and credit received, group membership, land tenure and distance to the nearest extension service provider significantly influence the demand for extension services. Practical implications:The major policy implication from the findings is that; whether farmers are organic or conventional, extension agents should customize their services according to their clients’ socio-economic characteristics in order to improve demand for agricultural extension services. Originality/value:The study contributes to knowledge by applying the count data models in modeling the determinants of demand for extension services at a micro-level. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Low agricultural productivity in Zambia is the result of long-term unsustainable practices amongst small-scale farmers. This situation has been compounded by the effects of climate change. Climate change has contributed to frequent droughts and increased floods in sub-Saharan Africa which is regarded as the most vulnerable region in the world. These natural disasters coupled with factors such as poor access to capital and inappropriate technologies have led to poor agricultural productivity leading to poverty amongst small-scale farmers. Moreover, although women play a key role in small-scale agriculture by contributing their labour and time in producing food, their access to resources is limited compared to men. ThisArticledraws from empirical data from a study comprising of 70 randomly selected households and focus group discussions in the Chankumba agricultural community in Zambia. Using a gendered analysis, it explores the sustainable agricultural practices, knowledge levels and adaptation strategies practiced by small-scale farmers to combat the impacts of natural disasters due to climate change. It was found that due to several constraints such as lack of finance and the marginalisation of women, conventional or traditional methods of agriculture are still being practiced with variable methods being introduced to mitigate against the effects of droughts and floods. The study recommends that sustainable agriculture should be mainstreamed at national level, loan facilities are provided to small-scale farmers and women's marginalisation on land issues should be sensitised as a priority to achieve land reform and stronger resilience to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This research sought to establish how knowledge is circulated among the informal sector innovators who develop innovations in the manufacture of de-haulers, an agricultural technology used to thresh seed. Questionnaires, in-depth interviews and observation methods were used in collecting the data for this study. The study findings obtained from this study indicate that small-scale farmer feedback loops and knowledge transfers occur in the development of innovation. The study concludes that innovation in the manufacture of de-haulers is enabled by knowledge fusion sharing involving both close and casual relationships among informal innovators, formal sector manufacturers and small-scale farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper reviews and synthesises research-based literature on drought adaptation practices among small-scale farmers in southern Africa. The paper reviews the existing literature in order to identify ways in which small-scale poor farmers in southern Africa adapt to the effects of drought. The paper further presents some constraints that limit small-scale farmers from adopting technologically-driven drought adaptation practices. The main message of this paper is that neither indigenous nor technologically-driven practices should be seen as panacea on their own, but integrating the two sets of practices could optimise adaptation by small-scale farmers. The material presented in this paper could be helpful to researchers, development planners and policy makers in their quest towards finding means of enhancing drought adaptation practices by small-scale farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Mexico is the primary center of origin and diversity for maize (Zea maysL.). Farmers grow the crop largely under rain-fed conditions. Mexico is at considerable risk from climate change because of predicted rising temperatures, declining rainfall, and an increase in extreme weather events. Small-scale maize farmers are particularly vulnerable because of their geographical location as well as their limited adaptive capacity. Recommended climate change adaptation strategies include farmers’ increased use of heat and drought stress-tolerant maize. Farmer adoption of improved germplasm has been disappointing because of inefficient seed input chains and farmers’ preference for landraces for culinary, agronomic, and cultural reasons. Scientists have tended to overlook the fact that maize landraces have a critical role to play in climate change adaptation. Landraces may already exist that are appropriate for predicted climates. Furthermore, within the primary gene pool of maize and its wild relatives there exists unexploited genetic diversity for novel traits and alleles that can be used for breeding new high yielding and stress-tolerant cultivars. The breeding component of adaptation strategies should focus more on improving farmers’ landraces. The desired result would be a segmented maize seed sector characterized by both (improved) landraces and improved maize varieties. The public and private sector could continue to provide farmers with improved maize varieties and different actors, including farmers themselves, would generate seed of improved landraces for sale and/or exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organophosphate pesticide spraying or the deployment of explosives as standard practices for controlling quelea breeding colonies or roosts that threaten small-grain crops in Africa have negative side-effects on non-target birds and on the environment. Mass-capture techniques were tested as an environmentally more friendly alternative. The birds caught could be used as food for local people. Traditional capture methods were also evaluated with a view to improving them. Large funnel traps, with and without bright lights, gave poor results because the behaviour of quelea and the thorny habitat made it difficult to drive the birds into the trap after dark. Locally made mist-nets functioned well. They allowed thousands of quelea to be caught. After a few days, parts of colonies where trapping had taken place were abandoned, and farmers reported a considerable reduction in the numbers of quelea raiding their fields. The proportion of non-target birds caught in the nets was very low and many were released unharmed. Catches were monitored by officials to ensure that only quelea were taken. With further refinement and the establishment of proper regulation, the use of mist-nets to control quelea colonies or roosts seems likely to be a viable alternative to aerial spraying of pesticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of partially decomposed animal manure can acidify the soil by nitrification and may cause problems with phosphorus (P) availability. This study investigated the influence of applying wood ash to two soils amended with partially decomposed cattle or chicken manure on pH and P. The treatments consisted of two soils, a clay loam and sandy loam, each amended with partially decomposed chicken or cattle manure applied at 0, 5, or 15 t ha−1, and wood ash was applied to each manure treatment at rates of 0 or 2 t ha−1. The addition of wood ash significantly increased pH, thereby making more P available in soil and maize (Zea mays L.) tissues for both soils after being amended by manure. Both chicken and cattle manure significantly increased all the measured variables compared to the unamended soils. These results suggest that wood ash is an important amendment that could be used to amend partially decomposed manure, thereby not jeopardizing P availability to crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resource-poor farmers in the Philippines have limited options for sustaining their livelihood, therefore it is important for them to practise and/or develop sustainable farming systems. But often in sustainability evaluations the perceptions of local stakeholders are not considered, although they are the ones who will apply sustainable technologies - or not apply them! This paper reports a study in Leyte, Philippines, where farmers, as well as stakeholders active in extension advice, on five study sites were asked to identify and rank criteria that could be used for comparison of different farming systems. Criteria were organised under the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Framework, with its five capital assets: financial, physical, natural, human and social. When stakeholders ranked the identified list of criteria later individually, statistical differences between farmers and other stakeholders as well as between regions were found with regard to single criteria, but not with regard to the importance of the five different capital assets. Furthermore, farmers' individual ranking differed from the ranking by the group during focus group discussions. These findings indicate that the perceptions of farmers and other stakeholders regarding sustainability of farming systems are similar when looking at the whole picture, but differences regarding single issues can be wider. This underlines the importance of including several local stakeholders to identify suitable criteria. The concept of sustainable rural livelihoods seemed to correspond with stakeholders', especially farmers', perception of sustainability and worked well for identifying criteria covering all aspects of sustainability, including social and human aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, food security is defined as access to nutritionally adequate and culturally acceptable food at affordable prices through non-emergency means all the time. The article will debate whether South Africa large agribusiness is critical in providing access to food. I look at the main value chain in South African agriculture and the role that large agribusiness play in ensuring the success of those value chains. I identify the critical success factors of current agribusiness. I highlight the factors that restrict and/or enhance the competitiveness and profitability of smaller agribusinesses and analyse the power relations between the players in the supply chain. I then analyse if the current support measures provided by the Dti is applicable to the agro-processing sector and to make recommendations on how such support measures can be adapted if needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroecology and SL studies are multi-disciplinary development schools that investigate the contexts and struggles of the rural poor in making a living under various adverse conditions. Both schools have made critical strides in rural development by promoting people-centered approaches. However, these two vital approaches to rural development have cut across each other based solely upon a loose combination of relevant elements derived from each of them. This paper argues that not only the shared spectrums but also the divergent interests between agroecology and SL studies signify the potential for beneficial cross-fertilization. With this conception, this paper tries to make conceptual and methodological syntheses between agroecology and SL studies as an integrated approach to rural development. The attempt results in a stylized model of modified SL framework with an eclectic set of new concepts. It is hoped that critical discussions on the possibility of integration between agroecology and SL studies would open up innovative arenas in the studies of sustainable agriculture and rural development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focal area approach has been developed and applied by the public agricultural extension service in Kenya to harness the comparative advantages of various players for the overall development of rural areas. Participatory processes have been institutionalized in public extension and have brought new meaning to both extension and understanding rural development. The interactive engagement of smallholder farmers by public extension and the conducive environment created by the approach for other service providers to interact with communities has brought many advantages. The participation of women and youth, the poor and vulnerable groups in generating information and solutions to address food security and other rural needs has been impressive. The knowledge gained from the interaction has contributed in influencing policy change and research priorities. Smallholder farmers have formed common interest groups, which has enabled them to move from subsistence to business farming associated with increased knowledge, increased productivity and increased demand for produce. The approach has enabled extension service providers to reach more farmers per year than they did previously. The partnerships created between public extension with other institutions contributed to enhancement of knowledge and skills that has enabled the approach to spread to more areas in the country. Further capacity development among the extension providers and formulation of supportive policies that encourage demand-driven extension will lead to further improvement of the approach and scaling up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this article is to review the research by agricultural economists over the past decade on linking smallholder farmers to agri-food supply chains in Southern Africa, and to consider international and local urban trends in the development of such supply chains. The research reviewed covers the constraints placed by transaction costs on access by smallholder farmers to input and product markets; the potential role of contracting in linking smallholders to agribusiness firms; linking smallholders to supermarkets; equity-share schemes; the role of trust in a business relationship; promoting investment in smallholder agriculture by developing rental markets in communal areas; and the role of collective action (e.g., the formation of cooperatives, investor-owned firms or trusts) in promoting access to input and product markets. The development of alternative food networks in urban areas, which face a growing influx of poor people, could provide opportunities for smallholders, as individuals or groups, to supply the communities with the products and services they desire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novel investigations into sugarcane stem borers, their distribution and their natural enemies, were conducted in small-scale farmers' fields and indigenous host plants growing in wetlands and irrigation channels in three regions of Ethiopia. Sugarcane, in most parts of the country, was infested with two Busseola species, identified as Busseola phaia and B. fusca. The incidence of infested sugarcane stalks by these ranged between 2 and 50% in individual fields. The incidence of Chilo partellus infested sugarcane stalks was high but this species was restricted to fewer areas in the Oromia and Amhara regions. Sesamia calamistis was recorded in two of the 54 sugarcane farms visited and in the sedge, Cyperus papyrus, growing on the edge of Lake Tana. Eldana saccharina, which is the most important pest of sugarcane in other parts of Africa, was recovered only from indigenous sedges (Cyperus spp.) growing in watering channels and large water bodies. Busseola phaia has not previously been reported from Ethiopia, and ours is the first report of this species attacking sugarcane in Africa. Seven species of parasitoid wasp were recorded from all of the stem borers found: the tachinids Linnaemya sp., Schembria eldanae and Actia sp., the braconids Dolichogenidea sp. and Cotesia flavipes, an unidentified scelionid, and a solitary parasitoid of unknown taxon. Two fungal pathogens (Entomophthora sp. and Beauveria bassiana) and a bacterial disease (Bacillus thuringiensis) were also recorded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the feasibility of official institutional programs for sustainable agriculture in Thailand during the last decade. In Thailand, both popular and official attention was paid to sustainable agriculture well before the Asian economic crisis occurred in 1997. However, the policy implementation of sustainable agriculture programs began only after the turn of the millennium, and the processes and outcomes have not been adequately studied from a feasibility standpoint. This paper aims to fill the gap by employing a 'sustainable governance' perspective for examining the programs of three main official institutions promoting sustainable agriculture in Thailand. It is concluded that the social impacts of public sustainable agricultural interventions in the past decade remain limited for the estimated 5 million small-scale farmer households in Thailand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An experiment was carried out to determine the effect of using low-protein diets on production of Tilapia rendalli in semi-intensive pond cage culture. This was carried out at Bunda College of Agriculture's fish farm, University of Malawi, where two 200-m² earthen ponds of 1-m depth were used for two months from February 2003 to early April 2003. Each pond had 6 cages of 1 m³ in size stocked with 15 fish, each 4.8 ± 1.2 g average weight and 6.7 ± 0.6 cm average length. Chicken manure was used as the organic manure applied at 500 kg/ha/wk and also acted as a control. All treatments were replicated three times. It was observed that fish growth was higher in the soybean meal-based diet, with final weight of 34.4 g, followed by sunflower cake, with final weight of 23.3 g. The lowest was 14.4 g in the chicken manure only, and cottonseed-based diet had final weight of 19.5 g. These results also agree with the specific growth rate (SGR) that ranged from 2.1%/day in the cages only fertilized with chicken manure to 3.6%/day in the soybean-based dietary treatment. The lowest feed conversion ratio of 1.2 was also observed in the soybean-based dietary treatment. This suggests that the use of lower protein diets that contain soybean would produce better results and may increase yield when combined with fertilization, as evidenced by high fish survival rates of more than 93% in all treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice grows in all agro-ecological zones in Nigeria and it is largely grown by small-scale farmers. An investigation was conducted to assess the representative pedons used for rice cultivation in the southwestern part of Nigeria. The aims were to assess how suitable these lands are for rice cultivation and what constraints to continuous and sustained rice production occurs on these soils. Data (climate, soil, water, etc.) were collected from rain-forest agro-ecological zones (AEZ) in which these pedons are located. After laboratory analyses, the land qualities/characteristics (LQ/LC) of these pedons were compared with the land-use requirements (LUR) for cultivating lowland rice using two methods of evaluation (conventional/FAO approach and the parametric method). Results showed that the two methods rated the aggregate suitability of these pedons for rice between marginal (S3) and unsuitable (N1). Major constraints identified in these pedons are poor soil texture, which translates to poor water management coupled with suboptimal nutrient contents [i.e., available phosphorus (P), exchangeable potassium (K), and cation exchange capacity (CEC)], which may predispose rice plants to excessive iron (Fe2+) uptake (or bronzing or yellowing symptoms). Grain yields (GYs) collected from the farmers' field (1994 and 1995 cropping seasons) showed that in the current state of two of the soil series (Apomu and Matako), the GY of the two rice cultivars ranged between 0.61 and 2.13 t/ha and declines progressively across years in the two cropping seasons. The result suggests that in spite of good climate for irrigated lowland rice cultivation in SW Nigeria and indeed all Nigeria, special attention must be paid to the soils on which this crop is grown in terms of the soil texture, appropriate water management, and optimum contents of soil nutrients, especially available P, exchangeable K, and CEC. Thus for a sustained and continuous rice production on these soils, it is important that nutrient contents of the soil be augmented with fertilizer (organic and inorganic) coupled with appropriate water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With South Africa's urban population approaching 60%, supermarkets and fast food chains have become important players in the South African food system. These large players in the food sector have systematically modified their procurement practices especially with regard to fresh fruit and vegetables and are now circumventing spot markets in favour of sourcing via in-house sourcing companies who mainly procure from preferred supplier producers. This paper draws extensively from a global research programme which seeks to highlight the market changes that potentially contribute to continued exclusion of the small producers from mass consumer markets. This paper illustrates, through a series of case studies, how integration of small-scale farmers into the urban retail market can be facilitated and how the challenges posed by the changing food system could possibly be overcome. The case studies illustrate various initiatives through which small-scale farmers and agribusinesses can be integrated into mainstream agri-food systems and may be used as models for an innovative approach to include small-scale farmers while still maintaining profitable business operations. They highlight the need for a multi actor approach for the successful participation of smallholder farmers in order to allow them to join the supply chain at any point within the channel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveys were conducted in the Amhara region of Ethiopia in order to gain insights into farm management practices, farmers' perceptions of sugarcane stem borers and the relative importance together with the effect of stem borers in farmers' livelihood systems. Surveys of 94 farmers revealed a wide range of variation, among heads, in households' age, educational background and understanding of stem borer problems on sugarcane farms. Fifty-six percent of the respondents identified stem borers as one of the most important production constraints. Farmers are aware of the effect of stem borers on the quantity of sugarcane produced; however, their knowledge of the effect of borers on sugarcane quality is very poor. Farmers generally relied on natural control for stem borers and only few (15%) of the interviewed farmers use cultural practices for the control of stem borers. The importance of information on farmers' perceptions and the need for agricultural extension services to develop control strategies that meet farmer aspirations is discussed and priority areas for future research are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research is to investigate whether agricultural cooperatives can facilitate smallholder farmer access to input and product markets. Farmers in two case study communal areas of KwaZulu-Natal face high transaction costs as reflected primarily in their low levels of education and literacy, lack of market information, insecure property rights, poor road and communication infrastructure, and long distances to markets. Analysis of the reasons why cooperatives were originally established in various parts of the world suggests that most of the causes (such as poverty, market failure and high transaction costs) also apply to the study farmers, as do the seven international principles of cooperation. Smallholder farmers in both case study regions have the potential to grow high-value crops such as vegetables, fruit and cut flowers. In the supply chain from farm to market, the optimum boundary for each organization involved in the chain (e.g. cooperative and investor-oriented firm) depends on the minimum operational and transaction costs for each business. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the problems of soil fertility under small-scale crop production systems in KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. The role of manure in maintaining and replenishing soil fertility for crop production and the fate of manure once applied to the soil are reviewed and discussed. Special emphasis is placed on cattle and chicken manure and the role that soil texture plays in the mineralization of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). In KwaZulu-Natal, small-scale farmers' maize ( Zea mays L.) yields are between 1.0 and 1.5 mg ha -1 , which is very low compared with the maize potential yield of 4.5 mg ha -1 for the area under small-scale farming conditions. A review of available literature on the use of manure for soil-fertility management showed that manure is a good source of plant nutrients. The use of manure is an old technology that is appropriate for small-scale farmers in South Africa, as most farmers practice mixed livestock and crop farming. Despite the use of manure dating back many years, small-scale farmers in South Africa are not fully exploiting the available manure for replenishing the fertility of their soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an assumed gap in efficiency between male and female farmers. Identifying the constraints of women farmers causing the gap is essential for improving local food security and well-being. Using stochastic frontier analysis, we compare the efficiency of men, women and jointly managed maize plots in Uganda and look at factors associated with inefficiency of women. Our results show that the average technical efficiency of women is lower than that of men or jointly managed plots. However, in relation to a group-specific frontier, the women are highly efficient. Women's inefficiency is associated with several household features. The overall number of household members has a negative effect on efficiency, suggesting that women are time constrained by the efforts they put into household productive work. There also seems to be an association between efficiency and cash-crop farming, disadvantaging women who more commonly grow crops for household consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]