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This study aimed to enhance the physical properties and the weak heat transmission of the core layer, which are the weak points of particleboard produced using melamine-impregnated paper waste (MIPW) as an adhesive. Alkyl-ketene dimer (AKD) and paraffin were used as water-repellent chemicals. MIPW was used as an adhesive, and no additional resin was used. As a result of this study, the samples' physical properties improved with AKD and paraffin's existence. Moreover, it has been approved that AKD is more effective than paraffin in improving the physical properties of the particleboard because AKD improves ester bonding with hydroxyl groups of cellulose fibers. The usage of water repellents resulted in the improvement of internal bond (IB) properties. It was determined that the type and amount of water-repellent chemicals significantly affected the mechanical and physical properties and formaldehyde content of the produced particleboards, except for bending properties. Just the chemical type was found to be significantly effective on bending strength (BS) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) properties. Overall, the study findings suggested that AKD might be successfully utilized as a water-repellent chemical in particleboard manufacturing, while MIPWs used as an adhesive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citric acid can be used as a bio-based binding agent in composites made from lignocellulosic material due to its crosslinking ability with hydroxyl groups via ester formation. Even though plenty of research has investigated diverse manufacturing conditions, with a focus on citric acid content and pressing temperature, an apparent knowledge gap persists regarding their effect on the properties of particleboards made from softwood sawdust. Furthermore, the optimal temperature for particleboards crafted from mostly non-wood lignocellulosic materials was found to be 180–200°C which is lower than that observed for softwood material in a prior study. This study aimed to systematically examine the effects of citric acid content and pressing temperature on particleboards derived from softwood sawdust. Results highlighted a positive correlation of both citric acid content and pressing temperature with mechanical and hygroscopic properties of the particleboards, the best results being achieved at 20 wt% citric acid and 220°C, exhibiting a thickness swelling of 9%, internal bonding strength of 0.77 MPa and a modulus of rupture of 4.3 MPa. This study served as a foundational framework for future investigations into the addition of other chemicals, offering a comprehensive understanding of their interactions with citric acid in particleboard manufacturing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is currently known that in certain circumstances pre-rounding of cutting blades can significantly increase tool life. Despite many data on the beneficial effect of drag-finishing on the durability of metalworking tools, it is not entirely clear whether similar benefits appear when machining wood-based panels. The results of some pilot study are quite promising but the real impact of cutting blades pre-rounding (it is about blades made of various standard cemented carbides), on tool life in particleboard milling are very rarely studied. The study aims to fill this gap in the knowledge system. The experimental research was carried out using a CNC milling machine equipped with a single-blade milling head with replaceable blades. It turned out that the positive effect of the drag-finishing of cutting blades on tool life in particleboard machining depends on the structure and hardness of carbide. A significant extension of the tool life (about 50%) was observed only in the case of particularly hard carbide (2240 HV10). There was no significant advantage for the softer type of carbide (1800 HV10). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the manufacture of lightweight single-layer particleboard (PB) made of the low-density wood species paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa) using high-frequency (HF) pressing technology. Paulownia round timber was chipped to particles with two different thickness levels (0.35 and 0.53 mm). The particles were classified into fraction B (> 0.5 ≤ 2.00 mm) and C (> 2 ≤ 4 mm) according to the mesh size of the sieve. Next to the particle size the influence of the board density (300 and 400 kg/m³) on the pressing process and the PB properties was analyzed. Using the HF press, PB were produced with a press speed of 6–9 s/mm. With increasing density, the values of the mechanical properties increased. PB made from larger particles showed higher modulus of rupture (MOR), the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and the internal bond strength (IB), but also more affinity to water absorption. PB with a density of 400 kg/m³ met the requirement for lightweight PB type LP2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of commonly used flame retardants in most cases causes reduction in strength characteristic of particleboard. Therefore, it was decided to carry out research aimed at determining possibility of using pMDI-reinforced PF adhesive to produce board with increased fire resistance. The effect of different shares of particles impregnated with a mixture of potassium carbonate and urea on the particleboard properties such as density, density profile, bending strength, modulus of elasticity, internal bond and internal bond after boiling was investigated. Presented work also determined the effect of fire retardant on the performance of particleboards after ageing test and their reaction to fire. Studies demonstrated that PF adhesive modified with 20% pMDI is suitable for gluing impregnated wood particles. Regardless of their share, resultant panels showed no changes in strength and density. In the case of boards consisting of impregnated particles in the amount of 75% and 100%, lower values of swelling were demonstrated. The boards were classified as load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions. Fire retarding efficiency was confirmed by lowered mass loss, prolonged time needed to reach maximal burning rate, decreased gross calorific value and reduced ignitability when exposed to both radiant heat source and small flame source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing harmful emissions from wooden materials is a major challenge for the wood industry. This is particularly important for the particleboard sector, where the use of formaldehyde-based resins can cause substantial pollutant emissions. With the aim of finding a greener alternative to commercial resins, the authors applied four types of liquefied lignocellulosic biomass and two types of nanocellulose-based formulations as a partial replacement of melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin for single-layer particleboard manufacturing and tested: formaldehyde content, formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions of the boards. The results revealed reduced formaldehyde content (up to −20%) and a slight decrease (max −13%) in formaldehyde emission in comparison to the panel produced with commercial resin when applying liquefied biomass in the adhesive mass. The values of VOC emissions in the particleboards developed with the alternative adhesive systems were substantially lower in comparison to the commercial panel, especially for γ-methacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane nanocellulose, which allowed to achieve a reduction of about 67% of total VOC emissions. Overall, liquefied wood products obtained from softwood bark showed the best performance in decreasing the emissions. The results confirmed the research hypothesis that the use of liquefied lignocellulosic biomass and nanocellulose can reduce the emissions of harmful substances from the wood-based panels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of a biodegradable adhesive that uses waste from industry will bring enormous economic, social, environmental, and health benefits. Many laboratories around the world conduct research on the development of natural adhesives that can replace those based on toxic formaldehyde. Works in this area are also carried out by Sestec Polska Sp. z o. o, an example of which is the Sestec B0021G adhesive. This product belongs to the family of animal protein-based adhesives and is dedicated to particle board (PB) production (classes P1–P5 according to EN 312). This work presents the results obtained during the preparation of boards based on Sestec B0021G protein adhesive, manufactured with the use of variable production parameters, and assesses the influence of these parameters on the properties of the obtained products. The emphasis was especially on presenting the impact of production parameters on the PB strength and water resistance. The tests were carried out using different densities (560–800 kg/m3), pressing temperatures (150–230 °C), amounts of adhesive (7–15% in the surface layer and 5–13% in the core layer) and specific press times (5–13 s/mm). The boards showed excellent mechanical properties and water resistance. Higher PB classes were obtained under standard production conditions. Eventually, the obtained results showed that the binder can be used to produce all classes of PB products P1 to P7, and not only P1-P5 as initially assumed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High resistance against moisture, fire, and biodegradation is typical for cement-bonded particleboards (CBPB). However, the mechanical properties of these materials are rather low compared to other wood-based panels, despite the high density. This study deals with a new approach to increase the bending properties of CBPB with a novel reinforcement produced from veneers. Veneer strips were produced from Norway spruce and beech, each in veneer thicknesses of 1.4 and 2.4 mm. These veneer strips were placed near the surface of the CBPB during mat forming without any pre-treatment. Bending properties of the reinforced CBPB were tested after 24 h (only spruce) and 28 days (spruce and beech) of curing. Both the modulus of rupture (MOR) and elasticity (MOE) were significantly increased after 24 h due to the reinforcement as compared to the non-reinforced reference. By increasing thickness and content of the veneer strips the effect was enhanced. However, for spruce, after 28 days no significant differences between the reinforced and the reference CBPB were detectable anymore. Beech veneer strips even led to a pronounced decrease of the MOR. Instrumented analyses revealed that the reason for this missing reinforcement effect has primarily been an inhibition of cement hydration due to the alkali-activated degradation products from the veneer strips. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

WC-Co cemented carbides are the most commonly used material for machining wood-based materials. They owe their popularity to good properties, such as hardness and, at the same time, high fracture toughness. A significant impact on the properties of cemented carbides can have the method of their preparation. The durability of WC-Co tools can be improved by selecting the appropriate machining parameters. The study attempted to determine the optimum machining parameters for particleboard. The tools used in the study were both commercial blades and blades manufactured in laboratory conditions by sparkplasma sintering (SPS), using a mixture of WC6%Co powders. As part of this work, observations of the microstructure and durability tests of the blades during particleboardmilling processes were carried out. Wear of the tool was measured until loss on the contact surface VBmax, was 0.2 mm. Based on the tests, it can be concluded that when the lowest feed per tooth (Δz = 0.15 mm) was used, the tools had the longest tool life. In addition, the commercial tools covered a significantly longer cutting distance than the tools obtained using the SPS method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the characteristics of particles recycled from waste particleboards and the factors that lower the physical and mechanical properties of recycled panels. Hot-pressing with/without adhesive and hydrothermal treatment are applied to the fresh wood particles, and the morphology, surface properties, and mechanical strength of the particles after treatments are investigated. The results indicate that hot pressing causes the densification of particles, resulting in reduced wettability, a low compaction ratio, and a loss of particle strength; thus, the mechanical properties of recycled panels are significantly weak. The residual adhesive also affects the wetting of the adhesive. Hydrothermal treatment helps to recover the cellular structure and compaction potential of recycled particles, thus improving the mechanical properties of recycled panels. The deteriorations in particle qualities are mainly due to densification and residual adhesive, and hydrothermal treatment helps to recover the structure and remove the resin on the recycled particles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to obtain the allowable formaldehyde emission value for E1 class boards by reducing the formaldehyde content of the most preferred particleboards. For this purpose, a Formaldehyde Scavenger Solution (FS) was synthesized by using Mono Ethanol Amine (MEA), Ammonium Chloride (AC) and Distilled Water (DW) mixture. Urea formaldehyde resin was used as a virgin adhesive. Three-layer particleboards were produced and their mechanical and physical properties were determined in accordance with the relevant standards. Formaldehyde contents were specified per the EN 120 perforator method. As a result of this study, FS was successfully synthesized and has been successful in reducing formaldehyde content values in the manufactured particleboards. The lowest formaldehyde content was observed in the FS5 boards, which reduced the formaldehyde content by 51.57% compared to the control group. However, the usage of FS negatively affected the mechanical and physical properties. Considering all the mechanical and physical properties of the particleboard with low formaldehyde content, it is possible to say that the best results are achieved with the usage of FS at the lowest rates (2.5% and 5%). As a result, Formaldehyde Scavenger Solution might be utilized during particleboard manufacturing with the virgin Urea Formaldehyde resin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowing the properties of wood-based building materials is essential for their proper use. Moisture transfer properties of building materials are crucial to proper building design and the prevention of moisture-related problems. In selecting materials for the building, it is important to know their water vapour transmission properties. In this research the water vapour transmission properties of uncoated and coated particleboard, oriented strand board (OSB) and birch plywood were studied using wet cup method and a moisture gradient in the samples was additionally measured. The water vapour transmission rate of free films of three commercial transparent coatings was also studied. Results showed that particleboard had the highest water vapour permeability and that the coatings reduced the water vapour permeability of all tested wood-based panels. Moreover, sanding increased the water vapour permeability of uncoated particleboard and OSB. The moisture gradient in all tested wood-based panels was linear. The highest water vapour transmission rate was recorded for acrylic water-borne coating, followed by polyurethane water-borne coating and the lowest for polyurethane solvent-based coating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Face-layer density is widely known to be important for bending properties such as modulus of rupture (MOR), static bending Young's modulus (Es), and dynamic bending Young's modulus (Ed), whereas outer core-layer density is not. According to this study, the outer core-layer density is more important than face-layer density in commercial particleboard. Core and face layers were manufactured with coarse and fine particles, respectively. The coarse particles increased bending properties due to the presence of long wood fibers. However, fine particles did not increase the bending properties due to the absence of long wood fibers. Long wood fibers in the outer core layers, as opposed to the face layers, increase the bending properties. MOR can be predicted using Es (or Ed) and outer core-layer density. Furthermore, shear modulus (G) was determined, and the effects of layer density on G were investigated. However, they were not indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work valorizes bio-hardeners from the Far North region of Cameroon, such as the exudates of Senegalia senegal, Vachellia seyal, Acacia siebteriana, and Vachellia nilotica. They were used to manufacture particleboard based on Maritime pine tannin resin, marketed to find a palliative solution to the environmental problems posed using synthetic hardeners such as paraformaldehyde. The rigidity values of the tannin resin vary from 4337 MPa at 154°C for the lowest to 5341 MPa for the highest at pH = 3.5. The behavior of the manufactured 13 mm thick particleboards of medium density was determined by calculating the variation of the bending strength (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and internal bond (IB) as a function of densities. The values of MOE vary between 1960.20 MPa and 3067.93 MPa and those of MOR between 13.17 MPa and 20.39 MPa. The maximum values of IB and Brinell hardness (HB) are 0.60 MPa and 3.78 daN/mm2 respectively. These physical and mechanical properties increased with increasing densities. The particleboards made with these bio-hardeners had better properties than those made with paraformaldehyde as hardener. The particleboard made with Vachellia nilotica exudate had the best physical and mechanical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Date palm fiber composites with aligned, continuous fibers and epoxy matrix were prepared and mechanically characterized using micromechanical models. A hydrothermal process with microwave heating was utilized to extract the date palm frond (midrib) fibers, making the process eco-friendly as opposed to the commonly reported chemical extraction method. Single fibers were then characterized and found to have an average elastic modulus and ultimate tensile strength of 17.1 ± 1.5 GPa and 333 ± 27.4 MPa, respectively. Interfacial shear strengths ranging between 6 and 12 MPa were determined using a single-fiber pull-out test. Fibers were aligned to make uniaxial tensile samples with volume fraction ranging from 11% to 56%, elastic modulus ranging from 1.72 GPa to 9.52 GPa and ultimate tensile strengths ranging from 16.9 MPa to 43.8 MPa. All the results were found to obey "Rule of Mixtures" theory. The composite's mechanical properties are similar to or exceeding those of the commercially available wood products such as medium density fiberboard, oriented strand board, thick particle board, hard fiber board, and plywood, making the hydrothermal approach with microwave heating as a promising approach for preparation of date palm composites and further opens up similar process pathway for other natural fibers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice husk and sawdust are abundantly available as wastes which end up in landfills. These can be utilized to produce lightweight and high strength bio-composites reinforced with jute fiber to substitute wood-based particle board (PB) for furniture production. This study aimed at producing polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) composites reinforced with jute fibers and filled with a combination of rice husks and sawdust at a ratio of 1:1 while jute fiber content was varied between 5% and 30%. Physical and mechanical properties of raw materials were characterized to ascertain their quality. The constituents were mixed and molded at room temperature. The manufactured composites were characterized by their water absorption (WA), thickness swelling (TS), density, tensile, compression, and bending strength. The results show a considerable improvement in the mechanical properties of composite when jute fiber content increased. Water absorption and thickness swelling had an inversely proportional relationship with jute fiber content due to its hydrophilic properties. On the other hand, the mechanical properties had direct proportional relationship with PVAc concentration. But above 30% PVAc concentration, the properties of the composite did not show any significant increment because above this volume fraction of PVAc, the properties tend to depend more on PVAc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The compatibility of oil-palm-trunk fibers and cement was investigated. Cold-water and hydrothermal carbonization treatments were applied on the fibers, and then the hydration temperature was measured to observe the compatibility. Calcium chloride (CaCl2), as an accelerator, was added at 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.0% of cement weight. The results showed that cold-water treatment and hydrothermal carbonization of the fibers reduced the hemicelluloses and ash content, thereby increasing the compatibility. Fourier transform infra-red analysis showed that functional groups of untreated and treated fibers were almost identical, indicating that the addition of treated fibers did not interfere the hardening process of cement. The treatment of fibers resulted in reduced thermal stability of the cement-fibers mixture, and the addition of CaCl2 decreased the hydration temperature of the mixtures, indicating that the chemical accelerated the hardening of the cement-fibers mixture. The addition of 1.5% CaCl2 to the cement mixture with treated fibers was adequate to obtain a low inhibitory index. Field emission scanning electron microscopy showed that higher formation of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium carbonate was observed in the treated fibers compared to the untreated fibers. The board modulus of elasticity increased by 215% and 281% after the fibers underwent with cold-water treatment and hydrothermal carbonization, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focused on the influence of some novel scavengers on the physical, mechanical, and formaldehyde emission of particleboard produced with urea-formaldehyde resin. Three different scavengers, alizarin red sulfonate, alizarin yellow-GG, and chromotropic acid, were incorporated into the UF resin at 1, 3, 5, and 7% (by weight) loading levels based on the oven-dried weight of the resin. Other manufacturing parameters were kept constant in the production of particleboards. The results indicated that the formaldehyde emission of the particleboards significantly reduced with an increasing amount of scavengers. The lowest formaldehyde emission was found in the specimens containing alizarin red sulfonate (0.38 mg/l), followed by chromotropic acid (0.43 mg/l), and alizarin yellow-GG (0.49 mg/l), respectively, at 7 wt% loading level of the scavengers. Although the physical and mechanical properties of the particleboards decreased with the increasing content of the scavengers, they met the requirements of particleboards for interior fitments (including furniture) for use in dry conditions (P2 grade) of EN 312 standard. According to the results of technological properties and formaldehyde emission of the particleboards, it can be said that alizarin red sulfonate is the best scavenger among the investigated ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate the biological durability of particleboard, containing silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and copper nanoparticles (Cu-NPs) to Trametes versicolor, white-rot fungus of hardwoods. NPs were mixed and sprayed with applied resin, to cover wood particles volumetrically. Bio-deterioration of specimens was measured through average mass loss after 4–16 weeks of exposure to T. versicolor. The results displayed a significant impact of Ag-NPs and Cu-NPs on the antifungal resistance of particleboard. The highest resistance to fungal attack is experienced by sample containing 15% Ag-NPs with the mass loss of 0.9% for 4 weeks to 3.24% after 16 weeks of exposure to T. versicolor which was classified as a very durable sample. Maximum mass loss of 45.5% was observed for the control specimens after 16 weeks. The presence of Ag-NPs and Cu-NPs on the wood particle surface was verified by the Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy. Scanning Electron Microscopy analysis confirmed the uniform distribution of NPs in bondline covered the surface of the wood particles properly, which seems to be an impressive barrier to fungal attack by inhibiting fungal hyphae growth. Because of the high thermal conductivity of metallic NPs, internal bonding properties of particleboard containing NPs were improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work explores an effect of nitrogen ion implantation on the life time of WC-Co tools used in particleboard milling. Nitrogen ions with different energy of 5, 50, and 500 keV and fluence of 1e17 and 5e17 cm−2 were implanted into the surface of commercially available WC-Co composite indexable knives, using the implanters with mass-separated ion beams. Both untreated and modified samples were subjected to microstructural and durability tests. Microstructural tests involved surface observation, determination of the nature of wear and cracks, determination of element depth profiles, and phase changes occurring in the modified area. Durability tests were conducted with the use of a computerized numerical control (CNC) machining center. The tests included determination of wear curves and calculation of quantities such as cutting length, relative tool life index, standard deviation, standard error, coefficient of variation and quality index and wear increases. Additionally, a histogram of the relative durability distribution of samples implanted with N+ was determined. In this study, an attempt was made to relate the durability results with the microstructure of the knives. Tools modified with a nitrogen ion beam of 50 keV showed the best durability results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using silver and copper nano-suspensions in mixture with resin, upon screw withdrawal capacity (in face and edge directions) and hardness (at different depths of penetration) of particleboards. An aqueous-suspension of 200 ppm silver and copper was mixed with urea-formaldehyde resin at two levels of 100 and 150 mL/kg dry weight wood particles. The size range of at least 70% of nano-particles was 20–90 nm. The results revealed a significant increase in screw withdrawal capacity and hardness by adding the nanometals to composite mats. The increased properties were partially attributed to an improvement in heat transfer in mats that facilitated the curing of resin. Moreover, theoretical simulations based on density functional theory (DFT) clearly demonstrated high adsorption energy of silver and copper atoms on cellulose and hemicellulose polymers; this contributed to a formation of additional bonds throughout the composite matrix, which in turns improved the board properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main factor influencing tool life in particleboard machining is mineral content, and therefore the aim of this investigation is to study the issue and evaluate the tool lifetime by machining different particleboards Also, the change of the mineral content of particle boards over a time frame of 30 years and the geographic origin of the boards should also be taken in account. For this purpose, the mineral content was determined on 600 samples which were produced between 1989 and 2018 in different countries. The influence of the mineral content to tool lifetime was examined with cutting tests at a special series of industrially produced boards with known recycled wood composition. Machining conditions and cutting material have been the same during the investigation. A comparison of the amount of recycled wood which is used in production of particleboard showed a higher mineral content for an increasing proportion of recycled wood, and thereby also an increased wear on the tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to evaluate the average density, mechanical stability, and the suitability of Rhizophora spp. particleboard bonded with epoxy resin as tissue-equivalent phantom materials. The particleboards were fabricated with added epoxy at levels of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. CT scan was used to evaluate the epoxy distribution. The sample with 15% epoxy level complied with the Japanese Industrial Standards. Moreover, the crystallinity was measured by microscopic analysis and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results showed that the values of mass density and effective atomic number of the studied samples were well agreed and close to the value of water. Both microscopic analysis and XRD results showed the utility of epoxy in filling up the gaps and increasing the crystallinity. In addition, the standard deviation (SD) value of fabricated particleboard bonded with 15% epoxy resin provided a good matching with the SD value of Catphan 600 phantom. Furthermore, 15% of epoxy, as a binder material, was considered the best percentage to achieve high performance and to enhance the mechanical stability of Rhizophora particleboards. In conclusion, epoxy resin improves the mechanical and physical properties of Rhizophora spp. particleboards to be performed as a phantom material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Particleboards produced with other lignocellulosic materials, beyond wood, are promising products for the furniture and building construction components, as doors, lining, floor, partitions, and coverings. However, there is little information about the resistance of them to xylophagous organisms. This is important due the different uses of particleboards, where they will be subject to attacks by decaying organisms, which can affect a structure and put people at risk. The present study aims to determine the biological resistance of particleboard produced with pine, sugarcane bagasse and malva particles to xylophagous organisms. The particleboard was produced with different proportions of pine wood heat treated at 200 °C and malva fiber (outer layers) and sugarcane bagasse core glued with an adhesive based on polyurethane from castor oil. No-choice and choice feeding tests with dry wood (Cryptotermes brevis) and conehead (Nasutitermes corniger) termites were carried out for the resistance test to xylophagous organisms, in addition to a test with rotting fungi which cause brown (Gloeophyllum trabeum and Rhodonia placenta) and white rot (Irpex lacteus and Trametes versicolor). The trial with dry wood termites showed low mass losses, regardless of the proportions applied. The mass losses were accentuated for the test with conehead termite, having the particleboard composed of 100% pine been the most resistant among the boards tested. The greatest mass losses for fungal resistance were caused by Gloeophyllum trabeum. The particleboard produced with 100% pine (outer layer) showed the highest resistance to the tested xylophagous organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT spp. wood trunks were processed into 1.0 gcm−3 particleboards at three different particle sizes with the addition of natural adhesives, i.e. soy flour and lignin. Samples of particleboards were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Crystallinity evaluation was conducted via X-ray diffraction (XRD). SEM images of the 6% adhesive-bonded Rhizophora spp. showed improvement in terms of compactness and number of voids, compared to the binderless sample. SEM images of soy flour appeared bright due to its higher density compared to lignin. FTIR spectrum of Rhizophora spp., soy flour, and lignin, were in good agreement with the previous study with adhesive-bound samples showed no discernible difference compared to raw Rhizophora spp. sample. TGA analysis revealed that all the samples showed a dissociation temperature of below 450°C. XRD result implies a lower crystallinity index compared to previous studies, indicating more amorphous material existed in the sample than crystalline material thus suggesting better physical and mechanical strength. Overall results demonstrated the potential use of soy-lignin bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboard as a tissue-substitute phantom material in medical physics applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mineral content of particleboard (PB) is suspected to be one of the main factors influencing cutting-tool life. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the influence of the mineral content of PBs on tool life as a function of the mineral content and the size of the largest sand grains. The mineral content of PB according to ISO 3340 was used as a value for the abrasiveness. Different samples of PB were analysed by comparison of the mineral content and the lifetime of a tungsten-carbide knife. In addition, the maximum size of the mineral grains in comparison with the total amount of mineral content was studied. The investigation showed that the mineral content of the PB and maximum sand-grain size are not sufficient to predict tool life. In comparison with the result of a lifetime test, which directly measures the wear behaviour of a board, the treatment of the ashes with hydrochloric acid after combustion, according to ISO 3340, destroys abrasive ingredients in the PB; therefore, this method is not suitable for identifying all abrasive components of a PB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aminoplastic particleboard adhesives are reactive, inexpensive and well established in industry. Even so, potential adhesive savings are of interest due to a number of reasons. Therefore, fibrillar cellulosic additives derived from sugar beet pulp and from wood pulp were examined with regard to beneficial effects on adhesive performance. Particleboards were prepared with, varying adhesive content and board density. For a proper processing of the additives, focus is laid on the critical process steps during particle resination. As shown by the results, the use of fibrillar cellulosic additives may enable longer open time, higher internal bond strengths and reduced resin consumption only within well-defined boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for particleboard has been increasing over the years. Currently, most particleboards are produced from wood which may not be sustainable in the long term. Therefore, there is need of exploring alternative materials such as making particleboards from waste materials. This study investigated the mechanical properties of particleboard consisting of waste leather shavings and waste papers blended together by unsaturated polyester. A single-layered particleboards were manufactured using compression method. Different resin contents (60%, 70%, 80%, and 90%) and leather/paper ratios (100:0, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25) were used to determine the effects on the mechanical properties (internal bond, bending strength, compression, and impact strength) of fabricated boards. From the results of this study, it was found that leather shavings and waste papers can be used as alternative raw materials for particleboard production and that mechanical properties were depended on the resin content and the blend ratio. Also, mechanical properties were reduced with resin content increment, except for impact strength, and improved by high paper blend ratio. It could be concluded that the produced particle panels could be used for indoor application or interior equipping. Additionally, it is recommended that further studies can be done on morphological analysis to establish the bonding between the particles and matrix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wood is a highly optimised lightweight material showing excellent mechanical properties in the fibre direction. However, strength and stiffness are low perpendicular to grain. Due to knots, stem taper and spiral grain, the wood material includes local and global fibre deviations. Mechanical disintegration of logs into veneers and sawn timber is more or less ignoring the orientation of the natural wood structure, reducing mechanical properties of the grown tree. This is also true for particle production processes e.g. for OSB or particleboard, which also applies cutting and crushing technologies. As a result, conventional mechanical disintegration of logs means, the destruction of a highly optimised structure, which is always accompanied by a significant reduction of mechanical properties. The basic idea of the novel non-cutting chipless particle production process is to preserve the natural structure by employing squeezing and shear forces. These squeezing and shear forces lead to the mechanical disintegration of the logs primarily in the fibre direction, whereby long fibrous particles, so-called macro-fibres, are gained. Macro-fibres gained from this process prove excellent strength properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, a sandwich panel with particleboard as surface layers and rigid polyurethane (PU) foam as core layers (foam-core particleboard) was produced with a one-step in situ foaming process. The effects of hydrofluorocarbon concentration as the blowing agent (BA) on the foam features and physical and mechanical properties of the produced panels were investigated. Typical micrograph of the rigid PU foam showed well-defined closed cells of spherical and polyhedral shapes. It was shown that the number of fractured cells in the foam structure was increased with the addition of BA in the amount of more than 4.5%. The results showed that the bending strength and internal bond values significantly raised with increasing BA concentration up to 6%. Screw withdrawal resistance from the face and thickness swelling were not significantly changed while the BA concentration varied. Edge screw withdrawal resistance and water absorption were drastically decreased when the blowing agent concentration was raised in the whole studied range. ABBREVIATIONS: PU: polyurethane; OH: hydroxyl; PO: polyol; ISO: isocyanate; BA: blowing agent; PMDI: polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate; BS: bending strength; IB: internal bond; SWR: screw withdrawal resistance; TS: thickness swelling; WA: water absorption [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper provides characteristics of three species of grain straw particles applied in the production of lignocellulose particleboards. For the sake of the investigation, rapeseed, rye, and triticale straw were fragmented to the size of particles used in the wood-based materials industry. The aim of the research was to determine physical properties of particle of rapeseed, rye, and triticale straw and to evaluate their usefulness in the process of manufacturing lignocellulose particleboards purposed for building constructions. Another aspect of the work was to determine the influence of moisture content of straw particles (using rapeseed straw as an example) on properties of the manufactured particleboards made with its use. The conclusion is that each of the investigated materials is characterized by different geometry, poured and tapped bulk density, varied angle of repose, and slippery angle of repose. Differences in sizes and shapes of particles of various grain species and in their moisture content strongly affect properties of particleboards produced with their use. The investigations prove that the best properties are observed for rye straw particleboards. However, due to their physical parameters, difficulties in storage, transport, and particleboards production may happen to be more considerable than in case of other materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the influence of wood densities on moduli of rupture and elasticity, internal bond strength, surface soundness and density profiles of light and medium-density three-layered particleboards (PB). Therefore, particles of low and high-density wood species in three-layered PB were combined. Different combinations of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) as high-density wood species and kiri (Paulownia spp.) as low-density wood species were used as material for the core and surface layers of PBs with target densities of 500 and 650 kg/m3. The results of all tests were influenced by the interaction of two effects: the different densities of the raw materials and the different level of compaction (effectiveness of glue utilization). For target density 500 kg/m3, the compaction of the kiri particles had a greater influence on strength results, than the higher density of the beech raw material. With increasing the target density from 500 to 650 kg/m3, a shift of the dominating effect occurred from effective glue utilization due to compaction towards the effect of the raw material density. The low-density raw material showed minor percentage changes than the high-density raw material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the uses of particle board is in the design of speaker/woofer casing, but with increasing demand, the cost is skyrocketing, effects of which lead to the high cost of end-use woofer gadgets. Cement–paper composite reinforced with snail shell powder/banana fiber was developed as an alternative. The fiber was grouped into two; untreated banana fiber (UBF) and treated banana fiber (TBF) (treated with 1 M NaOH). Fibers were infused into the composite at 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5% by weight of paper pulp while snail shell powder was added at 15 wt.% constant proportion for all samples produced. Curing was carried out for 28 and 56 days, respectively. The composite boards produced were examined for physical, mechanical, and microstructural properties. Results obtained indicated an uptrend in water absorption and thickness swelling at increasing fiber loading. Internal bond strength, screw holding strength, moduli of rupture, and elasticity were observed to be enhanced with increment in fiber proportion. It was further noticed that alkaline TBF performed better than the untreated fiber, hence recommended for paperboard production. Experimental trend and performance analysis engaged in revealed hydration to be the most efficient experimental variable and important for overall property maximization in cement–paper composite. Performance evaluation conducted showed effective property index was noticed to be highest for composite board doped with 2.5 wt.% TBF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a bid to develop a cheaper alternative material for particleboard, fiber/particulate reinforced cement-paper composites were produced. The paper-cement matrix had 12 wt. % of cement and the matrix was reinforced with 10 wt. % fixed amount of coconut shell powder and varied amount of palm kernel fiber (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 wt. %). Two separate groups of samples were produced; one containing untreated fiber (UPKF), in varied proportions of 0–2.5 wt. % and the second containing alkaline-treated fiber (TPKF), in varied proportion of 0–2.5 wt. % fiber. Samples produced were cured for 28 and 49 days and examined for physical, mechanical, and thermal properties as well as microstructural features. The result obtained revealed improvement in properties of samples as fiber proportion increased. Comparison of the properties obtained indicates that alkaline-treated samples gave a better performance than the untreated counterparts, which was reflected in the sum of property ratio for each mix. The value for TPKF samples was higher than the value for UPKF samples. Also, samples cured for 49 days had better performance than the ones cured for 28 days for both UPKF and TPKF. Evaluation of the three experimental variables, fiber addition, alkaline treatment, and curing length proved that curing was more effective in enhancing the properties of the composites developed, especially the mechanical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigation of the properties of particleboard panels bonded with a phenol-lignin-glyoxal (PLG) resin as a new type of wood adhesive was the aim of this research work. Thus, various contents of soda bagasse lignin (20, 30 and 40 wt%) as a substitute of part of the phenol were used to synthesize PLG resins, coupled with glyoxal as a nontoxic aldehyde. The resins prepared were then used to bond particleboard panels. The physicochemical properties of the synthesized resins and physical and mechanical properties of the particleboard panels bonded with the PLG resins were measured. The thermal properties of the resins were also analyzed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Finally, the properties of the resins and of the panels bonded with them were compared with those of a control PF resin and the relevant EN standards. The results showed that PLG resins, especially at the higher percentages of lignin, had slower gel time and lower viscosity compared to the control PF resin. DSC analysis also indicated that curing of a PLG resin with 30 wt% lignin substitution needs a higher temperature than for a PF resin. Although the panels bonded with PLG resins presented weaker mechanical properties and lower dimensional stability compared to those bonded with PF resins their properties still satisfy the requirements of the relevant standards specifications. The results of this work indicated that panels bending and internal bond strengths, as well as their dimensional stability, decrease with an increasing percentage of the lignin content from 20% to 40% by weight, while the flexural modulus increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the performances of type of demountable connectors used as connecting elements in the frame construction furniture are compared with the forces against shear force. The test samples were prepared from melamine-coated particle board (YL-Lam) and medium density fiberboard (MDF-Lam). Four types of demountable type of connection elements are used: metal L connection, plastic T connection, metal T connection and moon connection. The experimental samples were subjected to static stress tests under the critical loads that could be affected during the use. As a result of the experiments, the highest shear force was obtained from the test specimens prepared by using MDF-Lam and metal T connectors. The lowest was determined by using YL-Lam and plastic T connector. According to the results of the experiment, in the H type construction prepared with YL-Lam, when the shear force bearing capacity of the connection element is ordered from highest to lowest, respectively; Metal T, Moon, Metal L and Plastic T connectors were determined while in the construction prepared with MDF-Lam it is ordered as Metal T, Metal L, Plastic T and Moon connectors. In this study, the load-bearing capacity of the test samples and the load-deflection graph formed under this loading are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Particleboard wood composites are immensely used for many general and manufacturing applications. In this study, an analysis of various machining conditions has been performed to obtain good surface quality in the hole making of particleboard by varying the input parameters. The surface roughness (Ra) values obtained are ranging from 6.03 to 28.32 µm, and the minimum value is achieved at a higher speed, lower feed, and smaller point angle combinations. From ANOVA analysis, it has been observed that the model developed is adequate, and the influence on surface roughness is strong for feed (56.68%) followed by a point angle (28.42%) and then speed (9.37%). Mathematical models have been developed using two different criteria such as response surface methodology (RSM), adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) and compared for their effectiveness. The coefficient of determination (R2(R-Sq)) values of 98.5% (RSM) and 99.9% (ANFIS) indicates that the models are useful to predict Ra of particleboard. The average checking error percentage (0.20098) has been obtained for the ANFIS model trained using 'gaussmf' membership function with 100 epochs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Production of particleboards is associated with volatile organic compounds emissions, many of which have odorous properties. The objective is to determine whether the odor emissions from the production, using spruce and aspen as raw material, comply with the local odor limit defined in a specific way—an hourly average odor concentration leading to 16% odor annoyance and not being exceeded more than 2% of the time in residential area. Complex data of odor are presented from two largest sources—dryer and press, providing odor emission concentration, flow, composition, and dispersion model. The odor emission flow from the dryer is by factor of 19 higher with the value of 7655 × 106 ouE h−1 than that from the press. The dependence between odor concentration and annoyance is defined and determined. Identifying the top 10 odorous compounds (the most relevant are hexanal, butanoic and acetic acids, and α- and β-pinenes) in the emissions, the concentration, which leads to 16% annoyance, is quantified to 0.62 µg m−3. The dispersion model provides odor distribution, proving that the given limit is not exceeded in the nearby residential area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research was to evaluate the properties of particleboard panels bonded with ionic liquid treated lignin- phenol- glyoxal (LPG) resin. For this purpose, soda bagasse lignin was modified by 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([Emim][OAc]) ionic liquid and then various contents of virgin and modified lignin (20, 30 and 40 wt% based on weight of phenol), phenol and glyoxal were used for synthesis of LPG resins. After resin synthesis, thermal and physicochemical properties of the synthesized resins such as curing behavior, gelation time, viscosity, solid content and density were measured. Finally, the resins so prepared were used for laboratory particleboard manufacturing. The panels physical (water absorption, thickness swelling) as well as mechanical (MOE, MOR and internal bond strength) properties were measured according to standard methods. The resins tests indicated that modification of lignin with ionic liquid not only can accelerate the gelation time and increase viscosity, density and solid content of LPG resins but also decrease the temperature required for curing the LPG resins. Based on the results of this work, the mechanical strength and dimensional stability of the particleboards bonded with a LPG resin can be improved by using modified lignin. The particleboards prepared with the LPG resin, using either modified or virgin lignin, presented higher water absorption as well as weaker mechanical strength than those prepared with the control PF resin. However, there does not appear to be any statistically significant difference between the some properties of the panels bonded with the control PF resin and those bonded with the LPG resin containing modified lignin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wood recycling is common practice in most countries. Currently, recovered wood is used for relatively low value uses including energy generation, particleboard manufacture, animal beddings and landscape uses. This paper gives an overview of two research projects that aim to generate high-value products from recovered wood and thereby encourage even higher rates of wood recycling. One project is concerned with the extraction of nano-crystalline cellulose from waste MDF and the other produces laminated beams from recovered wood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of joints on the mid-span load capacity of bookshelves made from laminated particleboard. Twenty types of joints were selected based on their popularity in the cabinet-making industry. Results showed that highest mid-span load capacities were obtained with glued groove joints that included glued wooden dowels. Overall, highest mid-span load capacities were obtained with fixed shelf-joint constructions, whereas lower capacities were obtained with adjustable constructions. Based on its high-load capacity and ease of construction, the spline joint appears best-suited for use by most craftsmen. Statistical lower tolerance limits were used to take capacity variability into account for design purposes. The 75% confidence|75% proportion limits for the glued wood spline and glued fiberboard spline joints were 94% and 93% of average, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, the adhesive systems used today in the European industries of particleboard, medium density fibreboard (MDF) and oriented strand board (OSB) are discussed. The structure of particleboard, MDF and OSB markets in Europe in relation to the types of adhesives and product specifications are presented as well. It is noticeable that new markets for wood-based panels like particleboard and fibreboard, known as non-furniture markets, are growing in Europe at a fast rate. It was concluded that most of the technological changes concerning the adhesive systems applied and additives have been realised from the need for niche panel products, the obligation to reach even lower formaldehyde emissions, and the necessity to decrease production costs due to the stringent competition in the market of wood-based panels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-quality wood resource scarcity as well as population growth and demand of wood have encouraged the use of alternative sources of lignocellulosic materials. In this study, the possibility of producing particleboard from waste cotton stalks is evaluated. The effects of the independent variables included weight ratio of melamine-formaldehyde to urea-formaldehyde, shelling ratio and the percentage of cotton stalks to poplar in the core layer were analyzed in the form of response surface methodology based on second-order multiple linear regression model. The results showed that there was perfect agreement between the estimated values and observed data, as with an increase in the ratio of melamine-formaldehyde resin to urea-formaldehyde, shelling ration and amount of poplar in the core layer of panels, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity and internal bonding increase. The optimal point of use of investigated variables included 18.30% melamine-formaldehyde, 30.35% thickness of the surface layers and 10.70% of poplar in the core layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Particleboard is an important base-material in furniture and building applications and its annual production capacity worldwide is over 100 million m3. Wood is the main raw material used, although the feasibility of non-wood alternatives exists. This technical note summarises information about how wood-particle geometry affects the bulk density and mat density, two important parameters in the particleboard production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presented research is about the use of a new type of a functional inorganic additive in particleboards, for the purpose of reducing free formaldehyde releases. One-layered particleboards were prepared in the laboratory by mixing industrial wood particles and urea-formaldehyde resin. Natural, abundantly and cheaply available nano-mesoporous diatomaceous earth (DE) was used, without and in combination with urea as a scavenger. Silica quartz sand was also added as a nonporous analogy. Particleboards were pressed at two press factors (9 and 15 s/mm). Formaldehyde release was determined using the rapid 3-hour-flask method (DIN EN 717-3). As a result, DE additions insignificantly reduced bending properties of particleboards. Internal bonding was in part significantly lowered. The particleboard produced with 3% urea loaded on 5% DE prior to application almost halved (–45%) the formaldehyde release. Formaldehyde release was on the average 17% lower when pressed at 15 s/mm instead of 9 s/mm. By loading urea onto the nano-mesoporous structure of DE, an improved scavenging function of urea could be shown. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper investigates the basic hygroscopic properties and formaldehyde content (FC) of particleboards produced with wood biomass from fruit tree branches and evergreen hardwood shrubs as substitute raw materials for fir particles. One-layer laboratory particleboards with two distinct target densities (0.63 g/cm3and 0.69 g/cm3) were produced using various mixtures of the above materials. Industrially produced wood particles were also used for comparison purposes. The results showed that the replacement of fir wood (FW) by evergreen hardwood material significantly upgraded board's quality in terms of thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) (except boards with density of 0.63 g/cm3) after immersion in water for 24 h and residual swelling (RS) after reconditioning. The contribution of branch-wood (BW) particles in the production of FW boards with density of 0.63 g/cm3induced increase of TS, WA, and RS while for boards with density of 0.69 g/cm3did not result to significant changes except for RS. In terms of FC, boards made of BW and evergreen hardwood showed significantly lower FC compared to those produced by FW and industrial particles. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Problem: Real-time process data and destructive test data were collected and merged from a woodcomposite manufacturer in the southeastern US for the purpose of developing real-time predictive models for strength properties of manufactured particleboard. Sensor malfunction and other real-time data problems lead to null fields in the company's data warehouse, resulting in information loss. Many manufacturers attempt to build accurate predictive models excluding entire records with null fields or use summary statistics such as the average or median in place of the null field. However, predictive-model errors in validation may be higher in the presence of information loss and may misguide the production process. Approach: This paper summarizes an application of missing-data imputation methods in predictive modeling of a wood-composite manufacturing process. Variable selection was applied prior to imputing missing data. Two missing data-imputation methods were selected after comparing six possible methods. Predictive models of imputed data were developed using partial least squares regression (PLSR) and were compared with models developed from nonimputed data. Results: Maximum-likelihood-based imputation using the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm and multiple imputation (MI) using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation achieved lower root mean-square error of prediction results than imputation based on the mean/median substitution, last-observation-carried-forward (LOCF), or a "hot-deck" method using single imputation. Predictive models based on the imputed dataset generated more precise prediction results than models based on nonimputed datasets. Outcomes of the study included avoiding rework and scrap when model predictions alerted of an imminent strength failure and minor reductions were made in resin input set points. Senior management of the company indicated that a savings occurred as a result of the study from lower resin usage (the second highest cost component of manufactured product). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was the reduction of formaldehyde emission from particleboard by phenolated Kraft lignin. For this purpose, the lignin was extracted from black liquor and then modified by phenolation. During the urea formaldehyde (UF) resin synthesis different proportions of unmodified and phenolated Kraft lignins (10%, 15%, and 20%) were added at pH = 7 instead of the second urea. Physicochemical properties and structural changes of resins so prepared, as well as the internal bond (IB) strength and formaldehyde emission associated with the panels bonded with them were measured according to standard methods. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis of lignin indicated that the content of O–H bonds increased in phenolated lignin while the aliphatic ethers C–O bonds decreased markedly in the modified lignin. Since both synthesis of UF resins and lignin phenolation are carried out under acid conditions, phenolation is an interesting way of modifying lignin for use in wood adhesive. The panels bonded with these resins showed significantly lower formaldehyde emission compared to commercial UF adhesives. The UF resin with 20% phenolated lignin exhibited less formaldehyde release without significant differences in internal bond strength and physicochemical properties compared to an unmodified UF resin. XRD analysis results indicated that addition of phenolated lignin decreased the crystallinity of the hardened UF resins. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Natural fibres are widely used in a variety of industries, especially for making composites. Research on the relationship between the characteristics of natural fibres and those of composites is very important in order to produce natural fibres and composites of high quality. The aim of this study is to examine the influence of the effect of a 1% NaOH treatment on the mechanical properties of particleboard made with industrial hemp shiv treated with the 1% NaOH solution at 100°C for 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes. The results showed that, after the 1% NaOH treatment for 0-60 minutes, microfibril angle, relative degree of crystallinity and density of hemp shiv were reduced and the middle lamellae were broken, but the mechanical properties of the resulting particleboard were improved. Thus, to improve the mechanical properties of hemp shiv particleboard, the particles can be treated by the NaOH solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper suggests the optimum NAF resin preparation to reduce the quantity of pollutant emissions from the particle boards by using PUF resin. The pollutant emissions performance of the prepared NAF resin was evaluated by comparison with eMDI resin. Each PF and PUF resin was made by variation of the molar ratio and synthesis methods according to order of addition of the basic products. In addition, after verifying the properties of the resins, the quantity of pollutant emitted from boards made with the PUF resins were evaluated. Of the cases of boards made with each resin, the formaldehyde emission was the lowest for PB #7. The eMDI resin used in this board showed good quality as an eco-friendly resin, because it had less than half the formaldehyde emission of the other formaldehyde-based resins. In addition, the mechanical properties of the particle board met the KS criteria; therefore, there should be no restriction on use in manufactured goods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]