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The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the way people communicate and convey information, particularly in public spaces. This paper investigates the use of language and signs in COVID-19-related directives in Japan from a pragmatic perspective. Using data collected through a linguistic landscape survey, the study qualitatively examines the use of politeness in linguistic formulation and the semiotic use of space through the combination of signs and objects. The analyses reveal the differences in politeness strategies used in top-down signs compared to bottom-up signs. Top-down signs, such as those produced by the government or large organizations, tend to use an invitation form and incomplete sentences, whereas bottom-up signs, created by individuals or small shops, often use more formal language and formulaic request expressions. The study highlights the role of addressers of bottom-up signs as "handlers" who play an active role in pragmatically utilizing space through the arrangement of semiotic signs. The study argues that a detailed linguistic and semiotic analysis is crucial in comprehending how meaning is co-constructed in the linguistic and semiotic landscape. This is particularly relevant in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, where clear and effective communication is of utmost importance in order to maintain public health and safety. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the use of language and signs in public spaces, and have implications for the development of effective communicative strategies in the context of the pandemic and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines how the Chinese government has adopted authoritarian digital populism to justify its political programs through its official social media sub-accounts. Through discourse analysis, we investigate textual material concerning the "Belt and Road Initiative" (BRI) posted on a representative WeChat account, Xiakedao. We find Xiakedao performing digital populism through stylistic-emotional manipulation to portray the benefits of the BRI to China, BRI countries, and the world, or, put succinctly, to legitimize the BRI. Specifically, in 2014–2016, through mixing informal and formal language, Xiakedao based its legitimization on stirring up a sense of hegemonic superiority by painting it as a strategy capable of significantly advancing China's interests. Since 2017, Xiakedao has shifted to emphasizing its massive global contribution to stimulate nationalist pride and exploiting a trauma complex to bestow a counter-hegemonic aura on it. Drawing on Laclau and Mouffe's discourse theory, we argue that Xiakedao has utilized the terms "China" and "BRI" as an empty signifier and a floating signifier, respectively. We unravel its discursive strategies of fixing their meanings and (re)drawing antagonistic frontiers to legitimize the BRI during different periods. The study contributes to theoretically understanding how an authoritarian state legitimizes the same political programs from disparate stances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the question of asymmetry/symmetry regarding the use of language in partisan media outlets in the US. Some research has suggested that conservatives and conservative media are unique in how they present information to their audience, positing that conservatives use simpler, more uncivil language. Others have noted that some of these matters, such as use of uncivil language, applies to both conservative and liberal outlets. The current study adds to this literature by examining whether the ideological leanings of news sources correlate with reading ease, level of negativity (sentiment), and level of formality (tone). Specifically, we examine whether only conservative outlets use simpler, negative, and less formal language or if these trends appear for media outlets across the ideological spectrum. Our findings find support for the symmetry hypothesis. Indeed, our findings suggest that ideological extremity and partisanship strength correlate with use of easier-to-read language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analytic and philosophical literature frequently refers to interpretation and translation as interchangeable concepts. Translation creatively transforms the language of a written or spoken text into another language, organises the original text and, despite the translator's efforts to remain loyal to the author's idea, some meanings will inevitably be lost or changed. Analytic authors suggest that translating the patient's experiential, embodied, and opaque narrative into a cohesive and meaningful story also changes the patient's suffering and renders it more tolerable. In parallel, I suggest that the supervisor's role includes translating the supervisee's experiential and embodied therapeutic narrative into an organised story in a formal language, according to analytic principles. The translated story enables the supervisee to share, albeit in imagination, therapeutic dilemmas and challenges with colleagues that alleviate the burden of clinical responsibility. Furthermore, translating the supervisee's therapeutic narrative helps the supervisee to acknowledge and accept the otherness in relationships, to find the missing words in his or her discourse, and to identify with and internalise the supervisor's ways of translating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores a generalization of the algebraic theory of formal languages. Having, as starting point, the work of T. Colcombet on cost functions and stabilization monoids, and of Daviaud et al. on stabilization algebras, this class of algebras is extended to ω♯-algebras and ω♯-automata are also introduced. The equality problem for order ideals (of free ω♯-algebras) recognized by finite ω♯-algebras is answered positively in this context. Various results on formal languages and monoids are generalized to this setting of order ideals and ω♯-algebras. The class of cost functions is proved to be embeddable in the class of recognizable order ideals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In tandem learning, a model for two-way language learning originally developed for non-formal education, language is learned through interaction between two native speakers with different first languages learning each other's languages in cooperation. A high level of authentic learning characterises this model. The original tandem learning model has been developed and transferred to a formal educational context. However, the effects of this transition on the authentic character of tandem learning has not been investigated, and research in this field is needed. This paper aims to increase knowledge and understanding of the challenges of implementing authenticity of tandem learning in formal language education by analysing the learning tasks in a handbook developed for classroom tandem, a model for language learning and teaching, within second national language education in Finland. The results indicate a large variation in authenticity levels among classroom tandem tasks, indicating that the implementation of tandem learning in a formal educational context has compromised authenticity. The results identify aspects of learning tasks that are problematic and could be further developed. The results point to areas for further development of the classroom tandem model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, we have shown that the goal of reducing the ecological system to a mathematical model cannot be achieved. Each mathematical model that is built has one of these two drawbacks: either some admissible outputs are not produced or some inadmissible outputs are produced. In this article, the authors aim to clarify to what point natural systems can be represented by formal languages. To this end, the concepts of consistent system and complete system are defined, from which it is demonstrated that the model system can be consistent and not complete. Initially, the authors define an axiomatic in which the inputs and outputs of natural systems and complex systems in general are classified, but from the point of view of the influence of objects from the system to the environment and vice versa. For each mathematical model that is generated, either of the two statements occurs: either some acceptable outputs are not produced, or some inadmissible outputs are produced. Finally, it is shown that if the set of inputs of the system is acceptable then the system is not complete or inconsistent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated how computer agents' language style affects summary writing in an Intelligent Tutoring System, called CSAL AutoTutor. Participants interacted with two computer agents in one of three language styles: (1) a formal language style, (2) an informal language style, and (3) a mixed language style. Primary results indicated that participants improved the quality of summary writing, spent less time writing summaries, and had lower syntactic complexity but more non-narrative summaries on posttest than pretest. However, this difference was not affected by the discourse formality that agents used during instruction. Results also showed participants rated peer summaries more accurately for cause/effect texts in the formal and mixed conditions, but generated summaries with lower referential cohesion in the informal condition on posttest than pretest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

English as a Second Language (ESL) students are often expected to read and use English translations of the Bible for academic and worship purposes. The purpose of this study was to explore the writing style of the King James Version and the New International Version in terms of each translation's formality, readability, and sentiment using quantitative text mining analysis tools. Results indicated that the KJV used more formal language, had a higher grade level of readability and used slightly more positive wording than the NIV. In addition, for both translations the Old Testament was much more negative in terms of sentiment than the New Testament. Lastly, a moderate positive relationship was found between readability and formality for both translations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Science education in the Arab world is conducted in various multilingual contexts. When science is taught in Arabic, diglossia – the coexistence of the formal language of literacy alongside a local spoken variety – constitutes a multilingual setting the pedagogical implications of which need to be understood. This study compares teacher–student interaction in two first grade elementary classrooms in Lebanon where science was taught in Arabic by two teachers with different preferences regarding the use of Arabic language varieties. Four lessons in each classroom were video- and audio-recorded and later transcribed. Teacher and student utterances were coded at six levels: class, participant, Arabic language variety, length of utterance, move, and function. Quantitative analyses are reported and qualitative illustrations of key patterns are presented and analysed. Typical IRF patterns of classroom discourse as well as differences in the purposes to which IRF sequences were put could be identified and the roles played by Arabic language varieties described. The findings are discussed from three perspectives: a sociocultural perspective on language in teaching and learning; a three-pronged perspective on multilingual classrooms in which language can be viewed as a problem, a right and a resource; and the sociolinguistics and psychology of Arabic diglossia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct-to-consumer marketing initiatives may improve utilization of evidence-based therapy. An important decision in such marketing efforts is how to effectively present scientific evidence supporting these treatments to potential consumers (if at all). This OSF preregistered study experimentally tested whether the language used to describe research evidence supporting cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety disorders affected consumer treatment attitudes and intentions. Adult participants (N = 303) recruited via mTurk were first assessed for their understanding of the term "evidence-based." They were then randomized to read a description of CBT employing either: formal research language (e.g., "large-scale clinical trials have demonstrated..."), informal language about research support derived from prior qualitative work (e.g., "people have better results..."), or no information about research. Perceptions of CBT (including credibility and expectancy) and likelihood of pursuing CBT (pull demand) were assessed. Results indicated that only half the sample understood the meaning of the term "evidence-based." The conditions that discussed research support outperformed the control condition on CBT perceptions, credibility, general expectancies, and perceived effectiveness. Post-hoc comparisons provided some evidence that qualitatively-derived language was more effective than formal research language for promoting positive perceptions of CBT. Implications for marketing content are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the acquisition of the argument structure of dative verbs in L3 English. The learners are L1 Moroccan Arabic–L2 French adults advanced in L3 English. The study considers whether the L3 learners in a formal foreign language instruction context can develop nativelike sensitivity to the semantic and morphological constraints on the distribution of double objects and prepositional phrases in dative constructions. The results of a grammaticality judgment and correction task reveal overgeneralization effects on non-alternating verbs in advanced L3 ultimate attainment. At the same time, the L3 learners show nativelike sensitivity to instances of subtle semantics, but not morphology, associated with dative constructions. The analysis of individual results provides empirical evidence supporting the claim that syntax–semantics and syntax–morphology interface properties are acquirable even if they are language-specific and previously inactive in the L1/L2. Thus, in ultimate attainment, L3 acquisition is another instance of L2 acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formal languages are sets of strings of symbols described by a set of rules specific to them. In this note, we discuss a certain class of formal languages, called regular languages, and put forward some elementary results. The properties of these languages are then employed to prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pāṇini's fourth (?) century BC Sanskrit grammar uses rewrite rules utilizing an explicit formal language defined through a semi-formal metalanguage. The grammar is generative, meaning that it is capable of expressing a potential infinity of well-formed Sanskrit sentences starting from a finite symbolic inventory. The grammar's operational rules involve extensive use of auxiliary markers, in the form of Sanskrit phonemes, to control grammatical derivations. Pāṇini's rules often utilize a generic context-sensitive format to identify terms used in replacement, modification or deletion operations. The context-sensitive rule format is itself defined using Pāṇini's more general method of auxiliary markers, the latter used to define many dozens of linguistic categories and rules controlling derivations of Sanskrit sentences through the manipulation of 'non-terminal' and 'terminal' symbols. This technique for controlling formal derivations was rediscovered by Emil Post in the 1920s and later shown by him to be capable of representing universal computation. The same implicit computational strength of Pāṇini's formalism follows as a consequence: while Pāṇini's Sanskrit grammar is computationally limited, the metalanguage through which his formalism is defined can be directly used to define any rule-based system by mimicking standard formal language definitions as an extension of the grammatical system proper. Pāṇini's formal achievement is historically distinctive, as derivations of grammatically correct, spoken Sanskrit, are designed for oral recitation, with the grammar itself constructed as an organic extension of the spoken object language. Pāṇini's formulation of what amounts to an orally realized symbolic calculus stands in contrast to the implicit inscriptional methods of contemporary formalisms, such as Gottlob Frege's appropriately named Begriffsschrift and the early computing paradigms of Post and Alan Turing. Nonetheless, contemporary views on the cognitive status of phonemic recognition and historical writing systems support the conjecture that, in spite of Pāṇini's rigorous oral formulation, construction of the grammar almost surely relied on alphabetic writing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weighted Petri nets as a kind of formal language are widely used to model and verify discrete event systems related to resource allocation like flexible manufacturing systems. System of Simple Sequential Processes with Multi-Resources (S3PMR, a subclass of weighted Petri nets and an important extension to the well-known System of Simple Sequential Processes with Resources, can model many discrete event systems in which (1) multiple processes may run in parallel and (2) each execution step of each process may use multiple units from multiple resource types. This paper gives a necessary and sufficient condition for the liveness of S3PMR. A new structural concept called Structurally Circular Wait (SCW) is proposed for S3PMR. Blocking Marking (BM) associated with an SCW is defined. It is proven that a marked S3PMR is live if and only if each SCW has no BM. We use an example of multi-processor system-on-chip to show that SCW and BM can precisely characterise the (partial) deadlocks for S3PMR. Simultaneously, two examples are used to show the advantages of SCW in preventing deadlocks of S3PMR. These results are significant for the further research on dealing with the deadlock problem. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Formality has long been of interest in the study of discourse, with periodic discussions of the best measure of formality and the relationship between formality and text categories. In this research, we explored what features predict formality as humans perceive the construct. We categorized a corpus consisting of 1,158 discourse samples published in theCollected/Selected Works of Mao Zedonginto the following categories: conversations, speeches, letters, comments, published articles, telegrams, and official documents. We developed two models of human formality perception: one measured at the multitextual level and one at the word level. We compared these two models with the previous metrics of formality when predicting human formality judgments. The weighted formality model at multiple levels of language, discourse, and psychological features best captured the concept of formality as humans perceive it using genre (narrativity), discourse cohesion, topic-related words (e.g., embodiment), and emotional words (positive emotion and negative emotion). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose relational data modeling as a tool for replacing the ad hoc and uncoordinated approaches commonly used throughout the social sciences to gather, store, and disseminate data. We demonstrate relational data modeling using global electoral and political institutional data. We define a relational data model as a map of concepts, their attributes, and the relationships between concepts developed using a formal language and according to a set of rules. To demonstrate the methodology, we design a simple relational data model of six concepts: countries, parties, elections, districts, institutions, and election results. Furthermore, we introduce a data model to solve the particularly vexing issue of party discontinuity (party splits, mergers, and alliances). We show how the solution facilitates computational tasks, such as the calculation of core measures of political phenomena (ex: electoral volatility). Ultimately, a relational data approach will play a central role in collective investments to develop advanced data capabilities, and thereby advance the accuracy, pace, and transparency of scholarship in the social sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we address several open problems concerning pure grammar systems (pGSs) and their controlled versions. More specifically, we prove the following four results. (I) Regular-controlled pGSs having a single component define the family of regular languages. (II) pGSs having two components controlled by infinite regular languages define the family of recursively enumerable languages. (III) Regular-controlled pGSs without any erasing rules define the family of regular languages not containing the empty string. (IV) pGSs define a proper subfamily of the family of regular languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose an automaton model called as binding-blocking automaton (BBA). It is a finite state automaton together with the ability to block some symbols and postpone them for reading by the head at a later time. The idea of blocking some symbols from being read by the head and unblocking when the system requires to read is motivated by peptide computing where some parts of peptide sequences are blocked by attaching an antibody with higher affinity and unblocked at a later point by the removal of the appropriate antibody. We study the variants of such systems, analyse the power of each variants and show various hierarchy results involving them. We also define normal-forms of binding-blocking automata for one of its variants and also show that the acceptance power of this variant of BBA is strictly less than that of multi-head finite automata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We consider a set of eight natural operations on formal languages (Kleene closure, positive closure, complement, prefix, suffix, factor, subword, and reversal), and compositions of them. Ifxandyare compositions, we sayxis equivalent toyif they have the same effect on all languagesL. We prove that the number of equivalence classes of these eight operations is finite. This implies that the orbit of any languageLunder the elements of the monoid is finite and bounded, independent ofL. This generalizes previous results about complement, Kleene closure, and positive closure. We also estimate the number of distinct languages generated by various subsets of these operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ingeneralized one-sided forbidding grammars(GOFGs), each context-free rule has associated a finite set offorbidding strings, and the set of rules is divided into the sets ofleftandright forbidding rules. A left forbidding rule can rewrite a nonterminal if each of its forbidding strings is absent to the left of the rewritten symbol. A right forbidding rule is applied analogically. Apart from this, they work like any generalized forbidding grammar. This paper proves the following three results. (1) GOFGs where each forbidding string consists of at most two symbols characterize the family of recursively enumerable languages. (2) GOFGs where the rules in one of the two sets of rules contain only ordinary context-free rules without any forbidding strings characterize the family of context-free languages. (3) GOFGs with the set of left forbidding rules coinciding with the set of right forbidding rules characterize the family of context-free languages. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this paper, we introduce a class of generalized regular languages, namely PS-regular languages, and give some characterizations of such generalized regular languages. As applications of the results, we obtain some characterizations of regular languages. Also, we consider the closure properties of the class of PS-regular languages, and the relationship among PS-regular languages, context-free languages and context-sensitive languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision processes with incomplete state feedback have been traditionally modelled as partially observable Markov decision processes. In this article, we present an alternative formulation based on probabilistic regular languages. The proposed approach generalises the recently reported work on language measure theoretic optimal control for perfectly observable situations and shows that such a framework is far more computationally tractable to the classical alternative. In particular, we show that the infinite horizon decision problem under partial observation, modelled in the proposed framework, is λ-approximable and, in general, is not harder to solve compared to the fully observable case. The approach is illustrated via two simple examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have examined cross-serial and embedded complement clauses in West Germanic in order to distinguish between different types of working memory models of human sentence processing, as well as different formal language models. Here, adult plasticity in the use of these constructions is investigated by examining the response of German-speaking learners of Dutch using magnetoencephalography (MEG). In three experimental sessions spanning their initial acquisition of Dutch, participants performed a sentence-scene matching task with Dutch sentences including two different verb constituent orders (Dutch verb order, German verb order), and in addition rated similar constructions in a separate rating task. The average planar gradient of the evoked field to the initial verb within the cluster revealed a larger evoked response for the German order relative to the Dutch order between 0.2 to 0.4 s over frontal sensors after 2 weeks, but not initially. The rating data showed that constructions consistent with Dutch grammar, but inconsistent with the German grammar were initially rated as unacceptable, but this preference reversed after 3 months. The behavioural and electrophysiological results suggest that cortical responses to verb order preferences in complement clauses can change within 3 months after the onset of adult language learning, implying that this aspect of grammatical processing remains plastic into adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When infix notation is used, parentheses are sometimes omitted according to specified rules, where it is assumed that the operators are stratified in precedence levels, and operators on each level are either left or right associative. Instead of making such an assumption, we carefully analyse the notion of superfluous parentheses by first giving a definition of a general precedence system, which declares the superfluous parenthesis pairs for any given expression. We provide a characterization of unambiguity in this general setting, and study the complexity of parsing expressions without superfluous parentheses. Also, we study the two notions of maximal unambiguous and complete precedence systems, and give a characterization for each one of these notions. Finally, we show that complete precedence systems can be equivalently described by a chain of left associative and right associative classes of operators, with some extra restrictions on the relative positions and the associativity of unary operators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an exposition of the theory of M-automata and G-automata, or finite automata augmented with a multiply-only register storing an element of a given monoid or group. Included are a number of new results of a foundational nature. We illustrate our techniques with a group-theoretic interpretation and proof of a key theorem of Chomsky and Schutzenberger from formal language theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loss of sensors and communication links may lead to incomplete observation at the supervisory level of discrete event systems (DES). Under these circumstances, an event may conceivably be observable at one state and unobservable at another state and the observability may become dependent on the history of event occurrences. This paper presents a framework for analysis of generalised projection maps in DES, including the maps that introduce possibly unbounded memory [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New analytic estimates for efficiency and vulnerability in the Erdös-Rénji model are presented using probabilistic properties and diameter bounds that are specific for this model and its topology. These estimates for random networks improve the known deterministic lower estimates for efficiency and vulnerability. The probabilistic technique provides a sharper approach to parametric analysis of random networks and allows us to report some new results concerning the efficiency-vulnerability relationship. Several numerical tests are presented to compare the lower estimates obtained with the empirical Erdös-Rénji random networks. These estimates illustrate how the new probabilistic estimates improve on the generic estimates reported in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-determinism is one of the most important, yet abstract, recurring concepts of Computer Science. It plays an important role in Computer Science areas such as formal language theory, computability theory, distributed computing, and operating systems. We conducted a series of studies on the perception of non-determinism. In the current research, we studied and analyzed undergraduate Computer Science students' solutions to assignments in a course on automata and formal languages. Our findings shed some light on students' perceptions of non-determinism, their tendency to use non-determinism, and the characteristics of their non-deterministic solutions. This paper describes the current research and its results, and suggests several teaching applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we discuss equivalent formal language models that yield their words in a similar way and conceptualize this similarity. More specifically, if for two models, there is a substitution by which we change each string of every yield sequence in one model so that the sequence of strings resulting from this change represents a yield sequence in the other equivalent model, these two models closely simulate one another; otherwise, they do not. First, we formalize this concept of close simulation in equivalent formal language models in general. Then, we illustrate this concept in terms of EIL systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supervisory control theory for discrete event systems, introduced by Ramadge and Wonham, is based on a non-probabilistic formal language framework. However, models for physical processes inherently involve modelling errors and noise-corrupted observations, implying that any practical finite-state approximation would require consideration of event occurrence probabilities. Building on the concept of signed real measure of regular languages, this paper formulates a comprehensive theory for optimal control of finite-state probabilistic processes. It is shown that the resulting discrete-event supervisor is optimal in the sense of elementwise maximizing the renormalized langauge measure vector for the controlled plant behaviour and is efficiently computable. The theoretical results are validated through several examples including the simulation of an engineering problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a new way of dynamically growing and breeding structures in 3D space through swarming agents. Different agent types and the way they evolve over time is specified by a swarm grammar similar to Lindenmayer systems. We expand common L-system string interpretation from a single turtle to a multitude of turtles which behave like a swarm. By describing swarm agents within the framework of formal grammars, we build a bridge from symbolic production systems (rewrite systems) to three-dimensional real-time construction procedures that are executed by reactive and interacting agents which move in simulated physical 3D spaces. We introduce constructor agents, their formal representation in swarm grammars and demonstrate by examples how (1) the swarm rules, (2) the agent parameters and (3) the environ ment can influence the actual construction and growth processes that are initiated and directed by the swarms. In order to facilitate exploration of a large variety of swarm grammars, we apply interactive evolutionary design methods to create swarm grammar sculptures and 3D structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oscillations are a typical feature of many biological dynamics. The possibility of generating complex oscillations by means of P systems is shown in the context of P metabolic systems. Moreover, a symbolic method for the representation of oscillations, inspired from formal language theory, is introduced, where oscillation shapes and modules are described in terms of parametric strings and operations on them. Some relevant biological cases are illustrated that prove the applicability of the approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What dynamics do simple recurrent networks (SRNs) develop to represent stack-like and queue-like memories? SRNs have been widely used as models in cognitive science. However, they are interesting in their own right as non-symbolic computing devices from the viewpoints of analogue computing and dynamical systems theory. In this paper, SRNs are trained on two prototypical formal languages with recursive structures that need stack-like or queue-like memories for processing, respectively. The evolved dynamics are analysed, then interpreted in terms of simple dynamical systems, and the different ease with which SRNs aquire them is related to the properties of these simple dynamical systems. Within the dynamical systems framework, it is concluded that the stack-like language is simpler than the queue-like language, without making use of arguments from symbolic computation theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors in this article states that the conversation today is probably too premeditated to be a simple or casual conversation. So they are going to use the term discussion, which implies a certain formality and a topic. Important issues are intellectually tackled with a calculated rigor. The typical formality of such discussions is deemed to represent an appropriately methodical approach. Authors view that the conversation can only be a memory of a possibility co-existent with the transcript; as a record, it is the definitive--a certainty.

We discuss the equality problem for infinite words generated by HD0L systems having sparse letters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the descriptional complexity of generalized forbidding grammars. It proves that every recursively enumerable language is generated by a generalized forbidding grammar containing no more than thirteen forbidding productions and no more than fifteen nonterminals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we give an algorithmic description of all regular languages recognized by graph algebras of directed graphs. A description of the analogous class of regular languages for the case of undirected graphs is obtained as a corollary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show that synchronized extension systems [17] can be successfully used to simulate timing mechanisms incorporated into grammars and automata [3, 7-9, 12]. Further, we introduce the concept of a time-varying code as a natural generalization of L-codes, and the relationship with classical codes, gsm codes and SE-codes is established. Finally, an algorithm for testing the time-varying code property in case of periodicity is given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide for the first time an exact translation into English of the Polish version of Alfred Tarski's classic 1936 paper, whose title we translate as 'On the Concept of Following Logically'. We also provide in footnotes an exact translation of all respects in which the German version, used as the basis of the previously published and rather inexact English translation, differs from the Polish. Although the two versions are basically identical, to an extent that is even uncanny, we note more than 400 differences. Several dozen of these are substantive differences due to revisions by Tarski to the Polish version which he did not incorporate in the German version. With respect to these revisions the Polish version should be regarded as more authoritative than the German. Hence scholars limited to an English translation should use ours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a real case study in which both the control and topographic activities of a scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) are formally specified. A method to obtain the executable formal specification is described, which implies the following tasks: 1) obtention of a functional model of the selected STM experiences; 2) discussion of the specification formalism and formal language to be used; 3) establishment of certain rules to convert the functional model to the chosen formal language; and 4) construction of the formal specification. The final specification has been used to validate the functional requirements against the behavior of the system. Previously, the internal consistency of the model had also been formally verified. Much has been learned through this project about the potential of formal techniques to be accepted as a viable way of improving requirements analysis in electronic instrument systems and in related software development. This experience shows how starting from both a formal basis and a set of formally verified functional requirements is critical in producing a high-quality system design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the role of prefabricated language (PL) in second language acquisition of young children. Information on how children become linguistically creative in constructing sentences without formal language instruction; Transitional stage of second language acquisition from one-word utterances to multi-word utterances; Operational definition of PL and creative language.

Does the social model of disability currently inform the delivery of services for people labelled as having profound and complex learning difficulties? What distinguishes practice which draws on the social model from that which is influenced by an individual model or a medical model of disability? This paper draws on the findings of a small scale interpretive research study and some of the current debates within disability studies to illuminate these questions. It concludes that the social model can and does positively impact on some practice and that it should be taught to all providers of services for this group. It further concludes that to include discussion about individual experience of impairment in such training may have negative consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smith, Wichagen and Zeugmann (1997) showed an interesting connection between learning with bounded number of mind changes from informants and classification from informant. They showed that if an indexed family of languages L is learnable via informants, using at most m mind changes, then one can partition 2[sup N], the class of all languages, into m + 2 subclasses L[sub 1],...,L[sub m+ 2] such that (1)∪[sub i∈{1,2,...,m+1} L1 = L], and (2) (L[sub 1],...,L[sub m+2]) can be classified from informants. However Smith et al. (1997) left open whether a similar result also holds for learning from texts. We show that such a result does not hold for texts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on compensatory strategies in specific language impairment (SLI) in children. Diagnosis of SLI; Compensatory strategies for reducing processing demands; Account of compensatory strategies in formal language assessment of SLI.

In the problem area of evaluating complex software systems, there are two distinguished areas of research, development, and application identified by the two buzzwords validation and verification, respectively. From the perspective adopted by the authors, verification is usually more formally based and, thus, can be supported by formal reasoning tools like theorem provers, for instance. The scope of verification approaches is limited by the difficulty of finding a sufficiently complete formalization to build upon. In paramount realistic problem domains, validation seems to be more appropriate, although it is less stringent in character and, therefore, validation results are often less definite. The aim of this paper is to exemplify a validation approach based on a clear and thoroughly formal theory. In this way, validation and verification should be brought closer to each other. To allow for precise and sufficiently clear results, the authors have selected the application domain of algorithms and systems for learning formal languages. By means of the validation toolkit TIC, some series of validation experiments have been performed. The results are presented for the sake of illustrating the underlying formal concepts in use. Comparing the validity of one learning approach to the invalidity of another one can be seen as an interesting result in its own right. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a new algorithm for generating finite-state automata models of hybrid systems in which the continuous-state dynamics can be switched when the continuous-state trajectory generates threshold events. The automata state transitions correspond to threshold events and the automata states correspond to portions of the threshold surfaces in the continuous state space. The hybrid system dynamics are approximated by the automata models in the sense that the languages of threshold event sequences generated by the automata contain the threshold event language for the hybrid system. Properties of the algorithm for constructing and refining the approximating automata are demonstrated and the application of approximating automata for system verification is illustrated for a switching controller for an inverted pendulum. Relationships to other approaches to hybrid system synthesis and verification are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on a study which demonstrated how object orientation and formal languages can be applied in modelling unit processes. Methods; Example; Conclusion.

Focuses on the application of Boolean algebra to logical sentential connectives of natural languages. Values of domain of objects; System of concrete objects in measurement; Introduction of measurement theoretic outlook.