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Functional oil is type of oil that is beneficial to human health and has nutritional value, however, functional oils are rich in bioactive substances such as polyunsaturated fatty acids which are sensitive to environmental factors and are susceptible to oxidation or decomposition. Construction of emulsion-based oil powder is a promising approach for improving the stability and solubility of functional oils. However, the low effective loading of oil in powder is the main challenge limiting encapsulation technology. This manuscript focuses on reviewing the current research progress of emulsion-based functional oil powder construction and systematically summarizes the processing characteristics of emulsion-based oil powder with high payload and summarizing the strategies to enhance the payload of powder in term of emulsification and drying, respectively. The impact of emulsion formation on oil powder production is discussed from different characteristics of emulsions, including emulsion composition, emulsification methods and emulsion types. In addition, the current status of improving material loading performance by various modifications to the drying technology is discussed, including the addition of drying processing additives, changes in drying parameters and the effect of innovative technological means. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, metformin (Met) has shown to have antineoplastic properties in cancer treatment by improving hypoxic tumor conditions, and causing reduction in the synthesis of biomolecules, which are vital for cancer growth. However, as an orally administered drug, Met has low bioavailability and rapid renal clearance. Thus, the goal of this study was to vectorize Met inside liposomes in the context of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), which currently lacks treatment options when compared to other types of breast cancer. Vectorization of Met inside liposomes was done using Bangham method by implementing double design of experiment methodology to increase Met drug loading (minimum-run resolution V characterization design and Box-Behnken design), as it is generally extremely low for hydrophilic molecules. Optimization of Met-loaded liposome synthesis was successfully achieved with drug loading of 190 mg/g (19% w/w). The optimal Met-liposomes were 170 nm in diameter with low PdI (< 0.1) and negative surface charge (-20 mV), exhibiting sustained Met release at pH 7.4. The liposomal Met delivery system was stable over several months, and successfully reduced TNBC cell proliferation due to the encapsulated drug. This study is one the first reports addressing liposome formulation through thin-film hydration using two design of experiment methods aiming to increase drug loading of Met. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to optimize a liposomal formulation to enhance the stability of a phenolic-rich extract from green walnut husk. Liposomes were prepared using varying concentrations of phosphatidylcholine (0.15–2% w/v), extract (0–1.3% v/v), and sodium laurate (0–0.2% w/v) via ethanol injection and sonication. Characterization included visual appearance, particle size, polydispersity index, surface charge, encapsulation efficiency, and morphology. Stable liposomes were achieved at 0.15% and 0.3% w/v phosphatidylcholine, although with low encapsulation efficiency (<40%). The addition of 0.2% (w/v) sodium laurate improved the stability, especially at higher phosphatidylcholine concentrations, enhancing the electrostatic repulsion. Optimal concentrations of 2% w/v phosphatidylcholine, 0.2% w/v sodium laurate, and 0.6% v/v extract were determined. The liposomes exhibited a spherical unilamellar morphology with a size of 97.5 ± 0.9 nm and a negative surface charge of –39.8 ± 0.9 mV. These nanoliposomes showed 79.7 ± 0.7% encapsulation efficiency and remained stable under pH, temperature, ionic strength, and storage time variations. Overall, the liposomes proved effective in preserving the natural phenolics of walnut husks under challenging environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of probiotics in functional foods has gained significant interest due to their various beneficial effects to human when consumed in adequate amounts. However, the low survivability of probiotics subjected to adverse environmental conditions during processing, storage and gastrointestinal passage limited their commercial applications. Double emulsion microbial encapsulation is a promising approach to provide probiotic living cells with a full protection to resist adverse environmental conditions. Based on numerous cases of double emulsions applied for probiotic encapsulation, this report reviews various factors influencing the encapsulation yield and viability of probiotics, including emulsification methods, emulsifier selection, effect of probiotics, and modification of emulsification technique, also the targeted release mechanisms of these double emulsions triggered by various manners. This information can be useful to optimize the formulation and emulsification technique of double emulsion in order to improve the use efficacy and beneficial effects of probiotics in different commercial products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oils (EOs) have many beneficial qualities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, and antifungal activities, along with good aroma, which have played a significant role in pharmaceutical, textile, and food industries. However, their high volatility and sensibility to external factors, as well as susceptibility to deterioration caused by environmental and storage conditions, or even common processing, and consequently limited water solubility, makes it difficult to incorporate them into aqueous food matrices and limits their industrial application. Spray-drying encapsulation has been proposed as a solution and a challenging research field to retard oil oxidation, extend EO's shelf life, improve their physicochemical stability, achieve controlled release, suggest novel uses, and therefore boost their added value. The objective of this review is to discuss various used wall materials, infeed emulsion properties, the main formulation and process variables affecting the physicochemical properties and release characteristics of the EOs-loaded particles obtained by spray-drying, the stability of EOs during storage, and the applications of encapsulated EOs powders in foods and nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and textile industries. The current review also summarizes recent advances in spray drying approaches for improving encapsulation efficiency, flavor retention, controlled release, and applicability of encapsulated EOs, thereby expanding their use and functionalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cumulative scientific information available on the digestibility of cooking oils and their nutritive values has spurred interest in replacing synthetic oils with natural oils to encapsulate lipophilic bioactives in nanoemulsion form. Our aim was to design stable nanoemulsions that encapsulate maximum concentration of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) into edible oil for improved stability and bioaccessibility. Among the four cooking oils tested, sunflower oil nanoemulsions formulated by a low energy method were found to be stable and highly miscible with Tween 85 and isopropanol (1:1) surfactant mixture. Mean droplet size of these nanoemulsions encapsulating 0.1–0.% (w/v) of cholecalciferol varied from 57.7 ± 1.9 to 158.13 ± 1.8 nm, and the ζ-potential maintained beyond −30 mV with entrapment efficiency ranging from 94.1% to 95.7%. Nanoemulsions were found to be stable over a period of 28 days upon storage at 4, 25, and 40 °C with no significant change in vitamin D3 content. Bioaccessibility studies using a simulated gastro-intestinal digestion model revealed release of 98% of the encapsulated vitamin D3. This method reported here to fabricate cooking oil based nanoemulsions for encapsulation of VD3 using simple formulations and inexpensive tools can have economic importance in therapeutic and food based approaches to enhance the quality of vitamin D nutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we prepared fish oil microcapsules by spray-drying using mesquite gum and chitosan as wall materials, and the encapsulation efficiency, microstructure, and lipid hydroperoxide concentration were evaluated. First, stable mesquite gum (216 nm and −22.3 mV) and mesquite gum/chitosan emulsions (333 nm and +47.9 mV) were produced. The fish oil emulsions were spray-dried, and the mesquite gum microcapsules displayed an encapsulation efficiency of 67.18% while mesquite gum/chitosan microcapsules exhibited an efficiency of 92.92%. The lipid hydroperoxide content of the fish oil microcapsules depended on the composition of the wall material, storage time, and storage temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Probiotics are beneficial microorganisms that can improve human health. However, probiotics are susceptible to adverse effects of processing and storage, and their viability decreases during their passage through the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, encapsulation processes are being developed to improve probiotic survival. This review highlights the fundamentals of the encapsulation process to produce encapsulated probiotics. It also discusses the experimental variables that impact the encapsulation efficiency of probiotics and their viability under storage conditions and under gastrointestinal conditions (in vitro and in vivo). Probiotic encapsulation provides a higher viability to microorganisms, leading to the development of new dairy and nondairy probiotic foods without altering their physical and sensorial properties that can improve human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenolic compounds found in plants have an unstable structure and can easily exhibit degradation reactions in external environmental factors. It is important to protect these active ingredients from environmental conditions. The encapsulation process emerges as an effective solution to this situation. In this study, microencapsulation studies of quinoa plant extract, which is known to have useful active ingredients, were carried out. Microcapsules loaded with quinoa extract (QE) were prepared by the complex coacervation method using two natural polymers, gelatin, and gum Arabic, as wall material. A response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the conditions for encapsulation efficiency. The encapsulation efficiency of the microencapsulated quinoa extract (MQE) was investigated in terms of three variables: stirring speed, core material amount, and surfactant concentration. The highest efficiency obtained as a result of experiments was found at 70.895%. Morphological analysis images of the microcapsules confirmed the capsule structure. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed the interaction between gelatin and gum Arabic and similarities in the quinoa extract and microcapsule bands showed that the extract was encapsulated. Thermogravimetric analysis results also proved the thermal stability of microcapsules. The microcapsules obtained with the experimental design formulation were observed to have general sizes of ∼4–120µ. Quinoa extract containing phenolic compounds was microencapsulated. The effects of three different variables (mixing speed, core material amount, and surfactant concentration) on encapsulation efficiency were investigated. The highest encapsulation efficiency was obtained at 1500 rpm, 5.00 g core material amount, and 0.5% surfactant concentration, and the yield was achieved at 70.895%. Microcapsules were prepared under optimum conditions in the reaction surface methodology and the obtained microcapsules were characterized morphologically and chemically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, dryings by foam mat, foam mat freeze-drying, spray-drying and freeze-drying were proposed to microencapsulate bioactive compounds extracted from espresso spent coffee. Albumin, maltodextrin and gum arabic were used as wall materials, and the dried product was characterized and compared. The foams produced were dried in a tunnel dryer at different temperatures and air velocities. The drying time ranged from 200 to 450 min, and shorter drying times were obtained for the highest temperatures. For all drying methods, dried products with good physicochemical properties and high levels of phenolic and antioxidant compounds were obtained. The foam mat resulted in samples with higher moisture content and bulk density. On the other hand, freeze-dried samples had greater hygroscopicity and shorter wettability times. Spray-dried samples were lighter (highest value of parameter L*). The encapsulation efficiency values were between 66.46% and 88.01%, with the lowest values obtained for the foam mat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to prepare GeXIVA[1,2] PLGA microspheres by W/O/W re-emulsificationsolvent evaporation technology and to develop sustained-release formulations to meet the clinical treatment needs of chronic neuropathic pain. Through prescription optimization, the uniformity of particle size and the encapsulation efficiency is improved, so as to achieve the quality standard of the microspheres. The mechanism of trehalose improving the stability of GeXIVA[1,2] was studied and verified by molecular simulation. The results showed that when adding trehalose to W1, using the PLGA model of 75:25, PLGA concentration of 30%, PVA concentration of 1.5%, adding 1% NaCl to PVA and adding 1% NaCl to solidification water, the prepared microspheres are smooth, the particle size is about 25 µm, and the encapsulation rate reaches 90%. The results of in vitro release experiments showed that the microspheres could be released steadily for about 30 days. The microsphere samples were characterized and analyzed by molecular simulation and powder X-ray diffractometer, and the protective mechanism of trehalose on GeXIVA[1,2] was discussed. The results showed that the hydrogen bond formed between trehalose and GeXIVA[1,2] acted as a hydration film and played a certain protective role on GeXIVA[1,2]. In addition, high-viscosity trehalose can form a glass state and wrap around GeXIVA[1,2], reducing the free movement of molecules. In the microsphere system, trehalose can also avoid the influence of PLGA material on the secondary structure of GeXIVA[1,2]. In conclusion, this study is expected to provide a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists are peptides consisting of nine or ten amino acid residues. GnRH agonists have been applied in the therapy of sexual hormone disorders like prostate cancer, endometriosis, uterine myoma, central precious puberty, and in-vitro fertility. Treatment is achieved by continuous hormone intake and long-term agonists administration, which is usually associated with poor patient compliance. Because GnRH agonists that are administered with the parenteral route are broken down by peptidase, their half-life is short. As a result, developing sustained release for the drug delivery system is significant. Even though some drugs have been successfully delivered with long-acting release microspheres and approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), some challenges remain. This review highlighted current approaches to encapsulate GnRH agonists into delivery systems and strategies encountered during the loading process. Moreover, the following sections provide strategies to improve the release profile, and animal and human studies were summarised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Propolis, which is a bee glue is potentially a useful food additive since it contains antioxidant and preservative-like properties. However, its application in the food industry remains limited, due to its strong taste and low solubility. Microencapsulation is a technique that can improve its characteristics and the most widely used is spray drying. To obtain a spray-dried product with desired properties, optimization of both the encapsulating materials and equipment operating conditions are crucial. In this review, the use of different wall materials and operational conditions for spray drying of propolis are discussed, in order to guide selection of these parameters to obtain optimal spray dried microcapsules. In addition, comparison with other microencapsulation techniques is also discussed and pertinent industrial applications of spray-dried propolis given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, nanoliposomes with tuneable structure elasticity were prepared by reverse-phase evaporation. Both Fluorescence Polarization and Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer was employed to characterize the structural elasticity of resultant nanoliposomes. Temozolomide, a kind of hydrophilic drug as the first-line treatment choice for glioblastoma, was encapsulated into nanoliposomes. The results showed that the flexibility of nanoliposomes gradually increased with sodium cholate, while decreasing with cholesterol, Labrafac CC and Labrafac PG adding. Furthermore, the structural flexibility of nanoliposomes was positively correlated with the encapsulation efficiency and release rate and cellular uptake. Our research reveals the structural flexibility of nanoliposomes could affect in vitro characteristics and thereafter in vivo behaviors of nanoliposomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Repaglinide (RPG, antidiabetic) and Diltiazem HCL (DIL, antihypertensive) loaded ethyl cellulose (EC) nanoparticles were prepared by the spray drying process using Placket Burman Design (PBD). The amount of EC (A, mg), Methanol (B, ml), Inlet temperature (C, OC), Feed rate (D, rpm), Nozzle diameter (E, mm) and Aspiration (F, rpm) were considered independent variables while EE of RPG (Y1) and EE of DIL (Y2) were selected as dependent variables. The optimized DIL and RPG loaded EC nanoparticles were further used for the development of oral fast disintegrating sustained release tablets by direct compression method. The tablets were evaluated for weight variation, thickness, hardness, disintegration time, friability and dissolution test. FTIR study showed no chemical interaction between drug and polymer. Scanning electron microscope showed spherical as well as oval shape and discrete nature of both nanoparticles. The physical parameters of oral fast disintegrating tablets developed with optimized formulation of drug loaded nanoparticles were found within the range. Drug loaded nanoparticles as well as oral fast disintegrating tablets showed very good sustained release behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthocyanins are abundant phytochemicals in nature that draw the public interest not only in their health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties. It also showed their function in providing foodstuffs with appealing and distinctive color. In this study, anthocyanins from hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces were microencapsulated by spray drying and freeze drying techniques using a wide variety of carriers including maltodextrin (MD), gum Arabic (GA) and their binary blends with inulin (INU) and konjac glucomannan (KON). The results showed that freeze-dried hibiscus powder using KON as carrier had the highest phenolic, anthocyanin and antioxidant activity, followed by spray-dried and freeze-dried MD/KON samples, which indicated the role of KON in the effective retention of antioxidants during the drying process. In addition, the ferric and cupric ion reduction activity (FRAP and CUPRAC) of the spray-dried samples was significantly higher than those of the freeze-dried powder. However, in terms of encapsulation efficiency (EE) of anthocyanins, KON was shown to be ineffective in entrapping these compounds in microcapsules with the lowest EE of freeze-dried KON and spray-dried MD/KON of 43.6% and 55.4%, respectively. By contrast, MD/GA was the most effective carrier, retaining anthocyanins inside the carrier matrix and limiting their loss to the surface of the microcapsules in both spray-drying and freeze-drying methods (EE of 91.8% and 95.7%, respectively). In addition, the moisture content of spray-dried powder samples was significantly higher than that of lyophilized powders, and the solubility of all samples was above 94.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lupeol liposomes, modified with Gal-PEG-DSPE, were developed following a thin-film dispersion method. Then, the morphology, physicochemical properties, and in vitro release properties of those liposomes were investigated. The scanning electron microscopic images showed that most of the liposomes were spherical particles; they were similar in size and uniformly dispersed. Both lupeol liposomes and Gal-lupeol liposomes exhibited an average particle size of about 100 nm. The encapsulation efficiency was greater than 85%. The encapsulation efficiency of lupeol liposome and Gal-lupeol liposome, stored with 15% sucrose as glycoprotein for 6months, was higher than 80%; although the particle size increased, they remained within 200 nm. The cell-uptake study demonstrated that the Gal-lupeol-liposome uptake efficiency was the highest in HepG2 cells. The HepG2 cells treated with the Gal-lupeol liposomes had higher apoptotic efficiency than the lupeol liposome and free lupeol. After HepG2 cells were treated with Gal-lupeol liposome, the expressions of AKT/mTOR-related proteins (p-AKT308 and p-AKT473) were also significantly reduced than the lupeol-liposome and free lupeol group. The in vivo targeting studies showed that Gal-NR-L exhibited liver-targeting effects on FVB mice. The pharmacodynamic study was performed by transfecting AKT and c-MET via the highpressure tail vein of FVB mice. After Gal-lupeol-L administration, the liver index and liver weight of mice were less than those non-targeted group. The histopathological study showed that the lobular structure in the mice liver was clearer, the vacuoles were more obvious, and the cytoplasm was more abundant after Gal-lupeol-L administration. Also, the qRT-PCR study showed that AFP, GPC3, and EpCAM mRNA expression levels were significantly lower than those non-targeted lupeol-liposomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual-responsive nanocapsules of poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAM)-co-acrylic acid (AA)-co-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA)) were synthesized by precipitation polymerization. The dual (temperature- and pH-)-responsive nanocapsules were fabricated using NIPAM as a temperature-sensitive monomer, AA as a pH-responsive monomer and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) as a model drug. The P(NIPAM-co-AA-co-HEMA) nanocarrier had a hollow nanocapsule structure with average diameter of about 70 nm and a shell thickness of about 10 nm. The nanocarrier exhibited good loading capacity (32.6%) and considerable encapsulation efficiency (57.3%) for 5-FU by physical entrapment. The zeta potentials of nanocapsules were observed from −30.7 to −35.2 mV after the incorporation of 5-FU. The cumulative release of nanocapsules reached at 88.7% (37 °C, pH 5.8). The overall drug release performance revealed that the drug release behavior was efficient, sustainable and stable at 37 °C and pH 7.4. In addition, the release mechanism analysis suggested that the drug release behavior is more dependent on pH than temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to develop and validate UV-Vis spectrophotometric method for estimation of black seed oil (BSO) and peppermint oil (PO). Emulsions were prepared using alginate (2.0 %) w/v as water phase and lecithin (3.0 %) w/v by incorporating BSO and PO oil separately. A good linearity result was recorded with R2 value at 0.9990 within the concentration range of 5.0-50.0 mg/ml for both oils. Moreover, the recovery percentage of accuracy for BSO was from 102.03 ± 0.16 % to 99.67 ± 1.53 % and 101.29 ± 1.94 % to 98.73 ± 1.19 % for PO, which suggests that the method was accurate and precise. The method was precise, as the largest % Relative Standard Deviation (% RSD) value was 1.77 in intraday and 1.99 in interday for BSO, whereas 1.94 in intraday and 1.96 in interday for PO. The Detection Limit (DL) (0.469 mg/ml) and Quantification Limit (QL) (1.408 mg/ml) for BSO, and DL (0.709 mg/ml) and QL (2.127 mg/ml) for PO were measured. Based on this developed method, the % Encapsulation Efficiency (EE %) of optimized formulation was obtained 89.06 ± 0.39 % (n=3). This protocol may be used for estimation of EE % analysis of new drug formulation in pharmaceutical research and development and quality control analysis. Abbreviations: BSO: Black Seeds Oil; TQ: Thymoquinone; PO: Peppermint Oil; PBS: Phosphate Buffer Saline; N. sativa: Nigella sativa; Neem Seed Oil: NSO; DL: Detection Limit; QL: Quantification Limit; RSD: Relative Standard Deviation; SD: Standard Deviation; ICH: The International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use; HPLC: High-Performance liquid Chromatography; GC-MS: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; EE: Encapsulation Efficiency; PBS: Phosphate Buffer Saline; EDTA: Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid; w/v: Weight/Volume; T80: Tween 80. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cocona is native to Amazon, rich in 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA). The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the inlet air temperature (120-180 °C) and of the combination of encapsulating agents maltodextrin and hydrolyzed collagen (MD:HC, 0:100-100:0), on cocona powders, by central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The main results were: solids recovery of 30.9-68.2%, antioxidant capacities of 98.6-141.3 mM TE/g (FRAP) and 53.1-143.3 mM TE/g (ABTS), 5-CQA of 99.7-670.8 µg/g and encapsulation efficiency of 91.2-98.1%. The best parameters, by CCRD were an MD:HC of 20:80 and a temperature of 120 °C, with high values of FRAP (88.12 mM TE/g), ABTS (81.39 mM TE/g), 5-CQA (532.20 µg/g), and encapsulation efficiency (95.97%). Additionally, cocona powder was evaluated for hygroscopicity (17.14 g/100 g), solubility (76.51%), morphology and color. It is, therefore, a good alternative to enhancing foods, given the bioactive properties of the fruit and of HC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying is one of the oldest, most common, and economical techniques typically employed for producing dry powders from flowable feeds which can be a solution, dispersion, or even paste. In the food industry, spray drying technology has also been employed as a means for microencapsulation of food active ingredients such as oils, fragrances, and flavors. Spray drying as a microencapsulation technique provides several beneficial functionalities such as easing handling of liquid labile active compounds, enhancing solubility, improving stability, providing protection against degradation, controlling or delaying release, and masking unpalatable tastes or smells. This article reviews the latest findings and research works on microencapsulation of food core materials by spray drying. It is aimed to give an overview of the vast variety of food active compounds studied in this particular area of interest. This article is organized by the type of food core material, i.e., oil, flavors, antioxidants and polyphenols, nutrients, pigments, vitamins, and enzymes, to facilitate comprehensive discussion on physicochemically similar compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyurea microcapsules containing oxyfluorfen herbicide were synthesized by interfacial polymerization reaction between toluene diisocyanate and ethylene diamine at various core to shell ratios using green solvent N-N-dimethyldecanamide as carrier medium and using biodegradable PVA203S and Kraft lignin grade (varying molecular weight) as the emulsifying agent. The study was done to understand the effect of stirring rate on preparing microcapsules and find out how the process conditions changed the attributes of microcapsules such as particle size distribution, encapsulation efficiency and release kinetics. The formation of capsules was confirmed by FT-IR, SEM and TGA. The study indicated that the encapsulation efficiency decreased with increasing core to shell ratio. The change in release kinetics was based on the stirring rate and was dependent on the pH of release medium. Particle size distribution was influenced by the agitation speed during formation of emulsion. Kraft lignins of varying molecular weight were used to synthesize the polyurea capsules. It was found that capsules with high molecular weight lignin showed slow and sustained release. Synthesized polyurea capsules was subjected to safety study on paddy crop and compared with commercially available oxyfluorfen and was found to be safe for use on paddy crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of spray drying conditions on encapsulated rapeseed oil was investigated regarding the encapsulation efficiency (EE). The drying rate was modified by the solid content (25–55% w/w) of atomized feed droplets, the inlet temperature (140–220 °C) and relative humidity (0.12–1.57%) of the drying air. The moisture, aw, bulk and tapped density, particle size, and EE were analyzed. An accelerated drying rate due to a higher solid content and inlet temperature as well as a slower drying induced by an increased air humidity resulted in larger particle and more efficient encapsulation. A higher EE was obtained with increasing particle size which is in accordance with a theoretical EE calculated based on the particle- and oil droplet diameter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interest in nondairy-based probiotic foods has significantly increased due to lactose intolerance, casein allergy, and associated cholesterol risks. Fruit-based products could be an excellent alternative option. In the present work, Sohiong (Prunus nepalensis) juice has been used for the development of a possible probiotic product. Sohiong juice was enzymatically extracted and fermented with probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum subsp. plantarum. The fermented juice was then spray dried to make a probiotic powder. The spray-drying process conditions including maltodextrin concentration (12–25% w/w), inlet temperature (120–140°C), and inlet feed rate (120–240 ml/h) were optimized using response surface methodology. The responses evaluated were drying yield, moisture content, encapsulation efficiency, and color difference. The results showed that the optimum conditions for the production of Sohiong juice powder with acceptable quality were 120°C inlet temperature, 12% w/w maltodextrin concentration, and 201 ml/h feed rate. A powder yield of 57.68% at a moisture content of 3.95% could be achieved with an encapsulation efficiency of 85.75%. The viable probiotic cell count in the Sohiong powder was more than the recommended value of 6.0 log CFU/g up to 36 days when stored at ambient condition and up to 104 days under refrigerated condition suggesting the feasibility of developing spray-dried nondairy probiotic powder from Sohiong juice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A facile and accurate electrochemical approach was developed to evaluate the stability of water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) multiple emulsions and the encapsulation efficiency (EE) for water-soluble active ingredient by W1/O/W2 emulsions. In the present work, vitamin B6, a kind of electroactive and water-soluble substance was used as the marker encapsulated in the internal aqueous phase (W1). The encapsulation efficiency for vitamin B6 and the stability of the W1/O/W2 emulsions could be evaluated through electrochemical oxidation of vitamin B6 in the external aqueous phase (W2), rather than in W1, where vitamin B6 isolated by oil membrane. The effects of the electrolyte and electrochemical measurement process on the stability of W1/O/W2 emulsions were investigated. Optical microscope images showed that W1/O/W2 emulsions could be dispersed in the electrolytes solution and stable in electrochemical process. The linear relationships between the peaks current in CV curves and the vitamin B6 concentration ranged from 9.0 μmol/L to 2.5 mmol/L with a detection limit (S/N = 3) of 2.0 μmol/L. It was testified that only vitamin B6 in the external aqueous phase in W1/O/W2 emulsions could be oxidized electrochemically. The instability of W1/O/W2 emulsions could be monitored through an increase of the peak current due to vitamin B6 leaking from W1 to W2. When the total amount of vitamin B6 was 1.5 wt %, the EE of vitamin B6 was 86.9 ± 0.59%, and decreased to 72.2 ± 0.43% after two weeks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyurea, a controlled release material, has been widely applied in agricultural fields due to high thermal stability and low cost. In this article oxyfluorfen polyurea microcapsules suspension was successfully prepared by interfacial polymerization using diisocyanate and polyamines such as Ethylenediamine, Hexamethylenediamine, Diethylenetriamine in presence of green solvent, i.e., N, N-dimethyldecanamide. The microcapsule suspension of oxyfluorfen has not been researched yet by using solvent N,N-dimethyldecanamide and polyamines. The effect and the type of diamines on the morphology and properties of the microcapsules have been investigated. The synthesized microcapsules were characterized by scanning electron microscope, ultraviolet spectrometry, Fourier transform iInfrared spectrometer, thermogravimetric analysis and particle size analyser. The effect of the core to shell ratio on encapsulation efficiency and release kinetics were also studied. The oxyfluorfen microcapsules had an excellent encapsulation efficiency (98.2%) using EDA as the monomer and Release kinetics depended upon the type of monomers used and also on core to shell ratio used (6.5:1, 5:1, 4:1). As core to shell ratio was increased the encapsulation efficiency was found to decrease. Prepared Microcapsules when sprayed on paddy crop was found to be safe in comparison with Emulsifiable concentrate sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, taste masked drug–resin complex (DRC) of efavirenz (EFV) was prepared by spray drying technique. The DRC was then incorporated in to a fast dissolving tablet dosage form. EFV is antiretroviral agent of very bitter taste and low oral bioavailability. To investigate the influence of the independent variables on encapsulation efficiency (EE) as well as on the bitter taste of EFV, response surface methodology was employed. Ion-exchange resin (tulsion-335) and amount of solvent were selected as the independent variables while the EE was selected as the dependent variable. DRC was characterized for EE, X-ray diffraction, particle size distribution, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, surface morphology, and in vitro dissolution study. The spectrophotometric method was used for the evaluation of bitter taste of EFV. The EE was found to be 37–84%. The compressed tablets were evaluated for the hardness, Friability, wetting time, disintegration time and in vitro drug release studies. This study confirmed that complexation of the drug with an ion-exchange resin can effectively mask the bitter taste of the drug in combination with production of fast dissolving tablets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aceclofenac (ACE) is a most commonly used drug for the relief of pain and inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis. The mean plasma elimination half-life of ACE is around 4 hrs and, therefore, frequent dosing is required which leads to patient noncompliance. Hence, to reduce the dosing frequency and adverse side effect, sustained release formulation of aceclofenac-loaded silica nanoparticles (ASiNPs) is beneficial to improve the patient noncompliance. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) were prepared by precipitation method using tetra ethyl ortho silicate (TEOS) as a precursor. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimise the independent variables such as SiNPs and 3-amino-propyl trimethoxysilane (APTMS) concentration, respectively, for dependent variables such as encapsulation efficiency (%EE) by using Design Expert software. The developed ASiNPs were characterized for their physiochemical properties. Results obtained from physiochemical characterisation confirmed the successful incorporation of drug in the SiNPs. The %EE was found to be in the range of 14.64–76.42%. In vitro drug release of ASiNPs in intestinal pH 6.8 shows sustained release up to 15 hrs compared to the pure ACE. From this study, we can conclude that ASiNPs would be able to sustain the drug release, reduced side effects and better patient compliance in combination with tablets and capsule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) possesses a variety of pharmacological activities amid poor solubility in water which has restricted its clinical application. In this study, isoliquiritigenin-loaded F127/P123 polymeric micelles (ISL-FPM) were successfully prepared and evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of the selected formulation were 20.12 ± 0.72 nm, 0.183 ± 0.046, and −38.31 ± 0.33 mV, respectively, coupled with high encapsulation efficiency of 93.76 ± 0.31%. Drug-loading test showed the solubility of ISL after formulating into micelles was 232 times higher than its intrinsic solubility. Moreover, critical micelle concentration (CMC) was tested with fluorescence probe method and turned out to be quite low, which implied high stability of ISL-FPM. Release profile in HCl (pH 1.2), double distilled water, and PBS (pH 7.4) of ISL-FPM reached over 80%, while free ISL was around 40%. Pharmacokinetic research revealed that formulated ISL-FPM significantly increased bioavailability by nearly 2.23-fold compared to free ISL. According to the results of in vitro antioxidant activity, scavenging DPPH activity of ISL was significantly strengthened when it was loaded into polymeric micelles. Altogether, ISL-FPM can act as a promising approach to improve solubility as well as enhance bioavailability and antioxidant activity of ISL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to optimize the preparation conditions of podophyllotoxin liposomes (PPT-Lips), and to investigate their effects on PC3 cells. PPT-Lips were prepared by using a thin-film dispersion method. In order to achieve maximum drug encapsulation efficiency (EE), the process and formulation variables were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The optimum preparation conditions were cholesterol to lecithin ratio of 3.6:40 (w/w), lipid to drug ratio of 15.8:1 (w/w), and the ultrasonic intensity of 35% (total power of 400 W). The experimental EE of PPT-Lips was 90.425%, which was consistent with the theoretically predicted value. The characterization studies showed that PPT-Lips were well-dispersible spherical particles with an average size of 106 nm and a zeta potential of –10.1 mV. A gradual and time-dependent pattern of PPT from liposomes was found in in vitro drug release with a cumulative release amount up to 70.3% in 24 h. Results of cell viability experiments on PC3 cells demonstrated that PPT-Lips exhibited more effective anticancer activity in comparison with free PPT. Therefore, PPT-Lips represent an efficient and promising drug delivery system for PPT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Lavender oil consists of around 100 components and is susceptible to volatilisation and degradation reactions. Aim: Microencapsulate lavender oil by spray drying using a biocompatible polymeric blend of gum acacia and maltodextrin to protect the oil components. Effect of total polymer content, oil loading, gum acacia, and maltodextrin proportions on the size, yield, loading, and encapsulation efficiency of the microparticles was investigated. Methods: Morphology and oil localisation within microparticles were assessed by confocal laser scanning electron microscope. Structural preservation and compatibility were assessed using Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Results: Lavender microparticles of size 12.42 ± 1.79 µm prepared at 30 w/w% polymer concentration, 16.67 w/w% oil loading, and 25w/w% gum acacia showed maximum oil protection at high loading (12 mg w/w%), and encapsulation efficiency (77.89 w/w%). Conclusion: Lavender oil was successfully microencapsulated into stable microparticles by spray drying using gum acacia/maltodextrin polymeric blend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustained-release micro-/nanospheres of the ketorolac tromethamine (KTC) were prepared using four different techniques viz., single emulsion solvent evaporation, high pressure homogenization, spray drying, and using a microreactor. Ethyl cellulose (EC) was used as an encapsulating agent for the preparation of sustained-release micro-/nanospheres of KTC. The Plackett–Burman design was employed for design of the experiments. The resulting micro-/nanospheres were characterized for their size, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro drug release performance. Interactions between the KTC and EC were quantified by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffractometry (XRPD). Particle morphology characterization was performed using field emission scanning electron microscopy. The micro-/nanospheres showed encapsulation efficiency of 42.34–89.33% by the solvent evaporation technique, 76.36–91.13% by the high-pressure homogenization technique, 70.74–79.68% by spray drying, and 79.00–89.49% by the microreactor technique. The micro-/nanospheres were found to be spherical and oval with smooth surface. The FTIR analysis confirmed no interaction of KTC with EC polymer. The XRPD analysis revealed good dispersion of the drug within the micro-/nanospheres formulation. Sustained KTC release profile over 12 h was achieved successfully by EC polymer. In conclusion, EC sustained-release micro-/nanospheres containing KTC can be prepared successfully using different techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To develop an oral sustained release formulation of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) for once-daily dosing, using chitosan-coated polylactic acid (PLA) or poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles. The role of polymer molecular weight (MW) and drug to polymer ratio in encapsulation efficiency (EE) and release from the nanoparticles was explored in vitro. Methods: Nanoparticles were prepared by a single emulsion solvent evaporation method where MMF was encapsulated with PLGA or PLA at various polymer MW and drug: polymer ratios. Subsequently, chitosan was added to create coated cationic particles, also at several chitosan MW grades and drug: polymer ratios. All the formulations were evaluated for mean diameter and polydispersity, EE as well as in vitro drug release. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), surface morphology, and in vitro mucin binding of the nanoparticles were performed for further characterization. Results: Two lead formulations comprise MMF: high MW, PLA: medium MW chitosan 1:7:7 (w/w/w), and MMF: high MW, PLGA: high MW chitosan 1:7:7 (w/w/w), which had high EE (94.34% and 75.44%, respectively) and sustained drug release over 12 h with a minimal burst phase. DSC experiments revealed an amorphous form of MMF in the nanoparticle formulations. The surface morphology of the MMF NP showed spherical nanoparticles with minimal visible porosity. The potential for mucoadhesiveness was assessed by changes in zeta potential after incubation of the nanoparticles in mucin. Conclusion: Two chitosan-coated nanoparticles formulations of MMF had high EE and a desirable sustained drug release profile in the effort to design a once-daily dosage form for MMF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Controlled-release multiparticulate systems of hydrophilic drugs usually suffer from poor encapsulation and rapid-release rate. In the present study, ultra-high loaded controlled release polymeric beads containing verapamil hydrochloride (VP) as hydrophilic model drug were efficiently prepared using superamphiphobic substrates aiming to improve patient compliance by reducing dosing frequency. Superamphiphobic substrates were fabricated using clean aluminum sheets etched with ammonia solution and were treated with 1.5% (w/v) perfluorodecyltriethoxysilane (PFDTS) alcoholic solution. The effect of the main polymer type (lactide/glycolide (PLGA) 5004A, PLGA 5010, and polycaprolactone (PCL)), copolymer (Eudragit RS100) content together with the effect of drug load on encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and in vitro drug release was statistically studied and optimized via D-optimal statistical design. In vivo pharmacokinetic study was carried out to compare the optimized system relative to the market product (Isoptin®). Results revealed that superamphiphobic substrates were successfully prepared showing a rough micro-sized hierarchical structured surface upon observing with scanning electron microscope and were confirmed by high contact angles of 151.60 ± 2.42 and 142.80°±05.23° for water and olive oil, respectively. The fabricated VP-loaded beads showed extremely high encapsulation efficiency exceeding 92.31% w/w. All the prepared systems exhibited a controlled release behavior with Q12 h ranging between 5.46 and 95.90%w/w. The optimized VP-loaded system composed of 150 mg (1.5% w/v) PCL without Eudragit RS100 together with 160 mg VP showed 2.7-folds mean residence time compared to the market product allowing once daily administration instead of three times per day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report a simple strategy to prepare Tween 60@2β-CD self-assembly vesicles in aqueous solution as a new drug delivery carrier for cancer chemotherapy. The spherical shape of vesicles was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and mean particle sizes were about 33.7 nm, as measured by dynamic light scattering, micro-IR results indicated that the self-assembly vesicles was driven by hydrogen bonding. Hydrophilic doxorubicin (DOX) was successfully loaded into the self-assembly vesicles with drug loading content of 7.85% and loading efficiency of 42%. In addition, an in vitro cytotoxicity study and cellular uptake assays demonstrated that the DOX-loaded Tween 60@2β-CD vesicles markedly enhanced the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of DOX toward the Hela cells. Furthermore, when used to evaluate the in vivo therapeutic efficacy in mice bearing the breast cell line (4T1), DOX-loaded vesicles exhibited superior inhibition of tumor growth compared with the DOX solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview about various innovative strategies that have been employed by recent researchers to overcome with the shortcomings associated with traditional microspheres. Essentially, optimization strategies from structural aspects have been widely investigated to improve the properties (e.g., enhanced hydrophilicity, reduced initial burst release, etc.) of the pristine microspheres. These include bulk alteration, surface modification as well as the formation of sophisticated microsphere design such as core-shell structures. Other than that, various microencapsulation techniques and novel technologies such as spray drying, supercritical fluid technique, membrane, and microfluidics emulsification also have been explored in this review. Additionally, the impact of formulation-related aspects on the drug encapsulation efficiency, particles size and particles size distribution during double emulsification method will also be discussed and reviewed extensively based on the recent literatures reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Size, encapsulation efficiency and stability affect the sustained release from nanoparticles containing protein-type drugs.Objectives: Insulin was used to evaluate effects of formulation parameters on minimizing diameter, maximizing encapsulation efficiency and preserving blood glucose control following intraperitoneal (IP) administration.Methods: Homogenization or sonication was used to incorporate insulin into poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles with increasing poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) content. Effects of polymer type, insulin/polymer loading ratio and stabilizer in the internal aqueous phase on physicochemical characteristics of NP, in vitro release and stability of encapsulated insulin were investigated. Entrapment efficiency and release were assessed by radioimmunoassay and bicinconnic acid protein assay, and stability was evaluated using SDS-PAGE. Bioactivity of insulin was assessed in streptozotocin-induced, insulin-deficient Type I diabetic mice.Results: Increasing polymeric PEG increased encapsulation efficiency, while the absence of internal stabilizer improved encapsulation and minimized burst release kinetics. Homogenization was shown to be superior to sonication, with NP fabricated from 10% PEG-PLGA having higher insulin encapsulation, lower burst release and better stability. Insulin-loaded NP maintained normoglycaemia for 24 h in diabetic mice following a single bolus, with no evidence of hypoglycemia.Conclusions: Insulin-loaded NP prepared from 10% PEG-PLGA possessed therapeutically useful encapsulation and release kinetics when delivered by the IP route. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of hydrodynamic conditions in the coacervation medium of the carotenoid-rich buriti oil using gelatin-alginate as wall materials was investigated. The stirring speed had strong influence on the size of the microcapsules, and Reynolds number higher than 70000 resulted in particle size D[4,3] lower than 200 μm. The carotenoid encapsulation efficiency was around 80%, with freeze-dried particles presenting intense yellow color. Although the size of the microparticles was highly dependent on the hydrodynamic conditions during coacervate formation, complex coacervation of gelatin and sodium alginate showed to be a feasible process to producing buriti oil microcapsules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to study the use of different prebiotic biopolymers in lime essential oil microencapsulation. Whey protein isolate, inulin and oligofructose biopolymers were used. The addition of prebiotic biopolymers reduced emulsion viscosity, although it produced larger droplet sizes (0.31–0.32 µm). Moisture values (2.94–3.13 g/100 g dry solids) and water activity (0.152–0.185) were satisfactory, being within the appropriate range for powdered food quality. Total oil content, limonene retention values and antioxidant activity of the microparticles containing essential oil decreased in the presence of the carbohydrates. The addition of prebiotic biopolymers reduced the microparticle thermal stability. X-ray diffraction confirmed the amorphous characteristic of the microparticles and the interaction of the essential oil with the wall material. The presence of prebiotic biopolymers can be a good alternative for lime essential oil microparticles, mainly using fibre that has a functional food appeal and can improve consumer health. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The size of antigen delivery systems impact on the immune induction. The purpose of this study was to obtain poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) containing rChe a 3 allergen in different sizes (about 200, 400, and 800 nm). The optimal conditions were obtained by adjusting different parameters comprising molecular weight/concentration of polyvinyl alcohol, solvent type (dichloromethane or dichloromethane/acetone), sonication time, and addition of cryoprotectant (sucrose). The optimized formulations were found to be stable for 60 days at 4°C. In conclusion, the preparation conditions need to be adjusted to obtain allergen-PLGA NPs with specific aforementioned sizes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A single robust reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method was developed and validated as per International Conference on Harmonization guidelines for the accurate quantification of curcuminoids in commercial turmeric products, Ayurvedic medicines, and nanovesicular systems. The proposed chromatographic method was found to be specific, linear (r2 ≥ 0.999), precise at intra- and inter-day levels (percentage relative standard deviation <2.0%), accurate (percentage recovery 99.14–102.29%), and robust. The limits of detection and quantification were found to be 7.40 and 24.70 ng mL−1for curcumin, 9.24 and 30.80 ng mL−1for demethoxycurcumin, and 6.48 and 21.61 ng mL−1for bisdemethoxycurcumin, respectively. Among different commercial turmeric products and Ayurvedic medicines tested, the contents of curcumin (3.54 ± 0.06–25.8 ± 0.08 mg g−1), demethoxycurcumin (1.28 ± 0.02–9.97 ± 0.03 mg g−1), and bisdemethoxycurcumin (0.50 ± 0.01–5.97 ± 0.01 mg g−1) varied significantly. The developed method was effectively applied to the determination of encapsulation efficiency of curcuminoids (ranged between 84.33 ± 3.50 and 96.59 ± 2.53%) in the nanovesicular systems. In conclusion, the reported method is suitable for the analysis of curcuminoids in a wide variety of turmeric products and used for the quality control of products that contain curcuminoids. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The double emulsion technology has a potential effect on the development of diversity and quality of functional foods by means of decreasing oil or salt concentration, encapsulating and controlling release of valuable components. In this study, it was aimed to formulate stable double emulsions to be used in food systems. W1/O ratios of primary emulsions, stabilized by polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), were designed as 2:8 and 4:6, and (W1/O)/W2 ratios of the double emulsions were used as 2:8 and 4:6. W/O/W phase ratios, homogenization methods applied to primary emulsion (high-speed homogenization, ultrasonic homogenization), and emulsifier types used in W2 phase [sodium caseinate (SC), xanthan gum, lecithin-whey protein concentrate] were used as independent variables. Particle size and distributions, stability, encapsulation efficiency (EE), rheological properties, long-term stability, and morphological properties of the double emulsions were investigated. The double emulsions prepared with SC and (W1/O)/W2 ratio of 4:6, were found to have the higher stability values, higher apparent viscosity, and lower particle size. High-speed homogenization applied to primary emulsion reduced particle size of the double emulsion and increased apparent viscosity, but did not affect stability and EE of the double emulsions, significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Iturin A is a valuable biopesticide because of its strong antifungal effect, low toxicity, and wide antimicrobial spectrum. However, the current formulation for iturin A is unstable and not sustained in the field. Thus, the aim of this work was to develop stable microcapsules containing iturin A by spray drying. The optimal technical parameters for the production of iturin A microcapsules include sodium alginate and poly(γ-glutamic acid) for the wall materials (1:1(W:W)), 180°C for the inlet temperature, and 5:1 (V:W) for the core-to-wall ratio. The iturin A microcapsules have a spherical shape, good sustained release, high ultraviolet resistance, and are stable in storage. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The influence of mPEG-PCL and mPEG-PLGA on encapsulation efficiency and drug-loading of nanoparticles was very important. SN-38 NPs were prepared from a series of diblock copolymers: mPEG1000-PLGA2000, mPEG2000-PCLs, mPEG5000-PCLs, mPEG2000-PLGAs, and mPEG5000-PLGAs by the thin film-hydration method. The prepared nanoparticles were characterized by morphology, size, encapsulation efficiency, drug-loading, andin vitrorelease behavior. This experiment suggested that the encapsulation efficiency and drug-loading of SN-38 NPs were attained the maximum values when the ratio of hydrophilic to hydrophobic block was between 1:2 and 1:3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was performed to investigate the influence of air inlet temperature (AIT) on the microencapsulation of hazelnut oil by spray drying. Encapsulated powders were analyzed for moisture content, powder yield, surface oil, encapsulation efficiency (EE), bulk density, and particle morphology. The obtained results demonstrated that moisture content, surface oil, and bulk density decreased by 37.8, 27.5, and 33%, respectively as AIT increased from 140 to 220°C. However, powder yield and encapsulation efficiency increased considerably with the rise in AIT. Higher EEs of about 75–80% were observed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Encapsulation is an established technique to protect sensitive materials from environmental stress. In order to understand the physical protection mechanism against oxidation, knowledge about the powder microstructure is required. Time domain-nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) has the potential to determine the surface oil (SO) and droplet size distribution by relaxation and restricted self-diffusion, respectively. The amount of SO, the retention and encapsulation efficiency are determined based on a lipid balance. The oil load of the initial powder and after SO removal is measured by TD-NMR. The results correlate with gravimetric and photometric references. The oil droplet size obtained by TD-NMR correlates well with static light scattering. The diameter of droplets in emulsions and dried powder both measured by TD-NMR, correlates (r = 0.998), implying that oil droplets embedded in a solid matrix can be measured. Summarising, TD-NMR allows analysis of the microstructure of encapsulated lipid powders, in a rapid, simple and non-destructive way. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Calcium alginate hydrogel beads were used to encapsulate lemon balm extract. Chitosan layer was used to investigate the effect of hydrogel coating. To determine the interactions of antioxidant compounds of extract with encapsulation materials and its stability, microstructure of hydrogel beads was thoroughly monitored using scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). Total polyphenols content and antiradical activity of lemon balm extract were also evaluated before and after encapsulation. Three significant parameters (lemon balm extract, sodium alginate, and calcium chloride concentrations) were optimized by response surface methodology to obtain maximum encapsulation efficiency. The FTIR spectra showed no interactions between extract and polymers as there were no new band in spectra of alginate hydrogel after encapsulation of active compounds of lemon balm extract. The antioxidant activity of lemon balm extract did not change after encapsulation. Therefore, it was found that alginate is a suitable material for encapsulation of natural antioxidants. Sodium alginate solution concentration, 1.84%, lemon balm extract concentration, 0.4%, and calcium chloride concentration, 0.2% was determined to be the optimum condition to reach maximum encapsulation efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Context: Pirfenidone (PFD) is an anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory agent indicated for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). The current oral administration of PFD has several limitations including first pass metabolism and gastrointestinal irritation. Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate the feasibility of transdermal delivery of PFD using liposomal carrier system. Materials and methods: PFD-loaded liposomes were prepared using soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC) and sodium cholate (SC). Encapsulation efficiency (EE) of PFD in liposomes was optimized using different preparation techniques including thin film hydration (TFH) method, direct injection method (DIM) and drug encapsulation using freeze–thaw cycles.In vitrodrug release study was performed using dialysis membrane method. The skin permeation studies were performed using excised porcine ear skin model in a Franz diffusion cell apparatus. Results and discussion: The average particle size and zeta-potential of liposomes were 191 ± 4.1 nm and −40.4 ± 4.5 mV, respectively. The liposomes prepared by TFH followed by 10 freeze–thaw cycles showed the greatest EE of 22.7 ± 0.63%. The optimized liposome formulation was incorporated in hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) hydrogel containing different permeation enhancers including oleic acid (OA), isopropyl myristate (IPM) and propylene glycol (PG). PFD-loaded liposomes incorporated in hydrogel containing OA and IPM showed the greatest flux of 10.9 ± 1.04 μg/cm2/h across skin, which was 5-fold greater compared with free PFD. The cumulative amount of PFD permeated was 344 ± 28.8 μg/cm2with a lag time of 2.3 ± 1.3 h. Conclusion: The hydrogel formulation containing PFD-loaded liposomes can be developed as a potential transdermal delivery system. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present study was carried out to fabricate the food grade vitamin E acetate nanoemulsion using edible mustard oil and to evaluate its improved bioactivities. A food-grade vitamin E acetate nanoemulsion was fabricated using the edible mustard oil and surfactant Tween-80. Flocculation was not observed for 15 days. The nanoemulsion was characterized for droplet morphology and size distribution using atomic force microscope and zetasizer, respectively. We observe a stable nanoemulsion of spherical morphology and a size distribution of 86.45 ± 3.61 nm. Further, the high-performance liquid chromatography method was used to determine the vitamin E acetate concentration and encapsulation efficiency for the stable nanoemulsion. These nanoemulsions showed improved bioactivity, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity and could be potentially used to increase the shelf life of fruit juice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]