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Introduction: The knowledge of British and Irish bryophytes has been summarised at intervals since 1690 in national floras and checklists. The number of species and varieties recognised in these works can be used to track the discovery of British and Irish bryophytes. Methods: The main floras and checklists were identified, and the taxa recognised in twenty of them counted and their identity assessed in relation to the current (2021) checklist. Key results: The number of known bryophytes increased rapidly after the publication of Ray's Synopsis (1690). Dillenius's (1741) Historia muscorum brought together all previous reports. His polynomials were the main source for Linnaeus's binomial names in Species plantarum (1753). Linnaeus cut the number of British and Irish species from 179 to 119, omitting those that seemed to him obscure. It was clumsily done, and William Hudson (1762), in Flora Anglica, increased the number to 139, with 51 varieties, of which 37 are now treated as species. His contemporary Richard Pulteney made an early attempt to trace first records in a manuscript compiled ca. 1789. We agree with 134 of Pulteney's first records, but disagree with 88. All the historic lists contain redundancies – species that were then thought distinct but are now lumped together, the maximum being Smith's (1804) Flora Britannica, with 62. From 1855 to 1930 numerous varieties were recognised. These peaked at 309 moss varieties in Duncan's (1926) checklist and 117 liverworts in Wilson's (1930) checklist. In 2021 they have shrunk to 33 moss varieties and 9 liverworts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the author reconstructs the data on Virginia's paper money regime using forensic accounting techniques. He corrects the existing data on the amounts authorized and outstanding, and reconstructs yearly data on previously unknown aspects of Virginia's paper money regime, including printings, net new emissions, redemptions and removals, denominational structures, expected redemption tax revenues, and specie accumulating in the treasury for paper money redemption. These new data form the foundation for narratives written on the social, economic, and political history of Virginia, as well as for testing models of colonial paper money performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The printing press helped to spread literacy, civic discourse, and even political dissent in colonial America. Without paper, however, the invention of the moveable type printing press would have been insignificant. This crucial communication medium was hobbled by a critical shortage of the raw material needed for printed matter. Paper was in short supply in the colonies and in the new nation as it could only be made from rags, and there was constant difficulty in obtaining enough rags to keep the presses rolling. Pleas for this essential ingredient were constantly seen in the newspapers in early America and there were severe shortages of both paper and the rags from which it was made during the American Revolution. This article examines how desperate were the early Americans for the paper which was necessary both for firing the muskets and for spreading the rhetoric of Revolution. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The paper is a review of bibliographical publications relating to transparent papers during the period 1960 to 1999. Emphasis is placed on conservation treatments. An introductory chapter covering the history and technology of these papers is followed by a description of types of degradation frequently encountered and a short paragraph dedicated to analysis. Subsequent chapters discuss conservation treatments, including dry cleaning, humidification and flattening, washing and deacidification, lining, local repairs, resizing, facing, solvent use and bleaching. A discussion of housing and storage methods completes the review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forensic accounting is used to reconstruct the data on emissions, redemptions, and bills outstanding for colonial New Jersey paper money. These components are further separated into the amounts initially legislated and the amounts actually executed. These data are substantial improvements over what currently exists in the literature. They also provide a more complete and nuanced accounting of colonial New Jersey's paper money regime than what has been done previously for any British North American colony. Enough detail of the forensic accounting exercise is given for scholars to reproduce the data series from the original sources. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article reads Salvador Plascencia's The People of Paper (2005) in dialogue with Édouard Glissant's concept of "opacity", an ethical and esthetic stance that values impeding comprehension. This novel's opacity arises from various limiting mechanisms – linguistic, translational, and formal – which both invite and inhibit interpretation, and in so doing open up a space in which readers can think with the text. Bringing The People of Paper and Glissant's thought together shows how Plascencia's text thickens and complicates readerly engagement, and so increases the esthetic purchase of the novel. The People of Paper both invites and deflects the idea that esthetic experience might offer a route to understanding the social or that it provides the foundation of a more ethical relation with others. In parallel, Plascencia's innovative use of the page and his invocation of an intertextual history of such innovation expands the scope of Glissant's theory, by incorporating the physical medium of the book and the workings of genre history as components of an opaque poetics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study offers a historical overview of U.S. paper money before and after its nationalization in 1861, drawing attention to its function as a medium of mass communication. Building upon recent scholarship concerning the social construction of money and national currencies, it is argued that U.S. currency is legitimated through visual strategies of rationalization and mystification, whereby the contractual obligations of the state are merged with the sacred bonds of national identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 1789 and 1803 the National Debt Office issued unbacked interest bearing notes whereas the Bank of Sweden issued silver backed notes. The massive note issuance by the National Debt Office led to different exchange rates and two units of account. The situation gave rise to an early paper standard theory formulated by Anders Wappengren, a well-read merchant who was strongly influenced by Adam Smith and the French physiocrats. Wappengren had a firm understanding of monetary systems and the adjustment mechanism under floating exchange rates, including such concepts as purchasing power parity and price stickiness. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

As journalists from around the world descended on the South during the civil rights movement, the local southern press served largely as an ally to segregationists and the campaign for massive resistance to integration. Despite the best efforts of pro-segregation propagandists, the visiting press often presented perspectives and realities deemed a threat to the “southern way of life.” In response, outside journalists and news organizations became the targets of segregationist backlash, including sustained editorial attacks from within the southern press aimed at their alleged integrationist anti-southern agendas, affiliations, and motives. As outside journalists repeatedly experienced intimidation, ridicule, and even violence while covering the movement, southern editorials cultivated and fanned the flames of this already hostile environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigating the stories behind the makers of 3D models of crystals has proved unexpectedly unstraightforward. Drawing on actor-network theory (ANT), this article investigates the references behind a set of models of mineralogical crystals made of pasteboard held by National Museums Scotland (NMS), to uncover the history and tradition of such models and the role that pedagogy plays in their stories. The contributions of many of the main actors have been neglected, dismissed, ignored, forgotten, or otherwise rendered invisible in the historical record, either intentionally or accidentally. It became clear, however, that there was a significant tradition of modelling in paper, from the earliest years of learning, play and education. Many more people than those intending to become professional model makers were capable of making paper models of subjects from the crystals found in rocks, to buildings made of them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Archives in financial institutions can often appear detached from reality, less relevant in reporting political facts and the documents mostly reveal redundant financial details. Yet financial institutions hold reliable primary information and their files contain insights of international historical relevance. Through the analysis of documents kept at the historical archive of the the Italian Bank for China (now in Archivio Storico UniCredit) it is possible to contextualize the bank's activity in the first half of the twentieth century in relation to historical facts of the first republic, China. In this article, the author unveils how the Banca Italiana per la Cina was involved in financial and political events concerning the Chinese and Italian governments. In the documents and correspondence written by the bank's management the facts are described with real perception of the situations. They reveal, using reliable sources, significant aspects regarding Sino-Italian relations during that historical period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the first four or five centuries of its manufacturing in Europe, paper was neither cheap nor available in unlimited quantities. Old rags, the primary material from which the paper was exclusively made, were a strategic commodity and trade with them was strictly regulated. Owing to their perpetual scarcity, as well as to the overall laboriousness of the papermaking process, a skilled master printer of the Incunabula period was hardly able to purchase a ream or two of high-quality paper for his monthly earnings. Consequently, the earliest printers had to rely on the support of ‘venture capitalists’ in order to secure steady supplies of paper. But the limitations of its manufacturing were not resolved by the end of the Incunabula period. Alas, the shortage and high cost of paper accompanied the development of print in Italy and elsewhere practically up until the advent of its industrial production from wooden pulp in the nineteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This is, as the subtitle indicates, a joint paper in two voices. Each author has worked with her counterpart to revise what began as their position paper for the Round Table ‘Women’s History at the Cutting Edge’ at the International Congress for the Historical Sciences, held in August 2015 in Jinan, China, which met jointly with the International Federation for Research in Women's History (IFRWH). Chen Yan explains her perplexity about the reticence of Chinese historians (based in China) to embrace topics in women's and gender history, using her own case as an example. She then poses five questions in the paper to stimulate reflections from the commentators, drawing on their varied experiences as historians of women and gender in other countries. Her particular objective is to ‘jump-start’ research and publication in these areas in China, where a variety of obstacles dissuade scholars from pursuing this path. Karen Offen’s contribution builds out from that of Chen Yan, arguing that women's and gender history is at the cutting edge of historical research precisely because it offers ‘a revolutionary development in the politics of historical knowledge’. No historian can be considered ‘up-to-date’ in the field of history without taking its findings into account. Offen addresses each of the five questions, making provocative arguments and rehearsing some of the achievements in providing an organizational structure that welcomes historians from many lands through the IFRWH. She emphasizes the vast expansion of publications in the field during the last twenty-some years in many languages besides English and addresses the controversies of the 1990s concerning the ‘turn’ to gender history and to theoretical analyses. Offen then proposes thinking about ‘women’ and ‘gender’ as two focal points along the continuum of the same project, using the analogy of the ‘zoom lens’. Making women's history an integral part of historical study requires a ‘gendered analysis’ of any historical topic, but it also requires deeper thinking about communication strategies that can bring the findings of our research to the general public. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article explores the work of the artist Andrea Mantegna. Particular focus is given to his works on paper, most particularly his engravings. Additional topics explored include his artwork "The Entombment," dating from 1465-1470, the history of engraving and graphic arts and how his work compares to that of other artists including Jacopo Bellini.

This article addresses the importance of research and development (R&D) collaboration for environmental adaptation in the Swedish pulp and paper industry. It reviews the collaborative efforts initiated during the first half of the twentieth century, and investigates in particular how these efforts were influenced by the advent of modern environmental legislation in the late 1960s. We find that during the early period the underlying motives for environmental R&D collaboration were related to the presence of local resistance to pollution, over time turning into increased requirements from tightening environmental regulation. When the Swedish Environmental Protection Act was implemented in 1969, the long-lasting tradition of collaborative R&D activities facilitated the development and the adaptation of cleaner technologies in the sector. The article concludes that in the case of the Swedish pulp and paper industry, the significant environmental improvements witnessed during the 1960s and onwards can only be fully comprehended by acknowledging the role of the industry-wide collaborative activities in R&D. The positive outcomes of this collaboration were in turn reinforced by an environmental regulation system, which facilitated long-term investments in environmental R&D and, in contrast to their Finnish and American counterparts, encouraged internal process changes in the industry. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In late nineteenth-century USA, technological developments in paper production—a shift from a reliance on scarce cotton rag to plentiful wood—drastically reduced the price of newsprint. That decline helped overturn the reigning economics of the daily newspaper and resulted in the rise of new cheap papers with vastly expanded circulation. This novel mass press encompassed almost all Americans in the public sphere as represented by its pages. Focusing on newspapers in Detroit, this study examines the manifold consequences this shift had for the press's economics, its news agenda, and the implicit identity of the audience it addressed. The rise of a mass press in the late nineteenth century, however, was not specific to Detroit or the USA. As comparative historians have highlighted, the emergence of a mass press in Europe and elsewhere was a turning point that deeply marked the historical evolution of press systems around the globe. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article argues that papermaking supported cryptanalysis's invention; that cryptology—meaning both cryptography and cryptanalysis—could not be practiced before the sustained production of paper; and that Medieval Arabic cryptology originated in tandem with algebra. Furthermore, this article posits that the regional Islamicate postal service, or thebarīd, was used to relay Medieval Arabic cryptograms and thereby shaped the substance of cryptology. These conclusions stem from examining ninth century to fourteenth century Arabic cryptology as a technology and relating Arabic cryptology to three other technological devices: papermaking in the Middle East, algebra, and thebarīd. Extant documents suggest that cryptology originated in ninth century Baghdad. This is because no cryptanalytical writings are known to exist before this period, and cryptology requires both cryptography and cryptanalysis. However, evidence of Medieval Arabic cryptology exists almost exclusively in practitioners' treatises, not in cryptograms or the working papers of cryptanalysts. To redress this barrier to historical research, I move from text to context, or from the ideas in the treatises to thinking about the technologies these ideas called for. Placing cryptological technology within the wider technological context that inspired, shaped, and confined its development suggests why cryptology originated in the Islamicate world, how Arabic cryptology may have been implemented in practice, and what enabled cryptology's start. I hope that this technological exercise encourages the study of the context in which Medieval Arabic cryptology developed, until further primary sources surface. Furthermore, I intend to demonstrate Medieval Arabic cryptology's relevance to cryptological history and Middle Eastern studies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The goal of this analysis was to obtain local citation behavior data on undergraduates researching history, political science, and sociology papers. The study found that students cited books and journals even with the availability of web sources; however, usage varied by subject. References to specific websites' domains also varied across subject area. Most of the top journal titles that students referenced were online and locally owned. Students cited a broader range of journal titles than predicted by the Law of Scattering and cited titles across a wide array of subject areas. This data helped identify potential gaps in the library's collection and services. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper deals with the relation between different kinds of indigenous speech and music and various iconographic forms such as petroglyphs, house painting, basketry designs and also features of landscape that are understood in graphic terms. It examines how Northwest Amazonian myth-history is structured and memorized, how it can appear in both verbal and non-verbal forms, and how contemporary books, maps and diagrams produced by indigenous organizations as part of programmes of research and education show continuity with these traditional forms. Rather than making firm distinctions between peoples with and without writing, I argue that it is more profitable to focus on how various mnemonic systems—“writing”—work in tandem with different narrative forms—“myth”. When “writing” and “myth” are understood in indigenous terms, contemporary written documents appear in a new light. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

On 1 January 1930 the Communist Party of Great Britain's (CPGB) new daily newspaper, theDaily Worker, was published for the first time. It was heralded by the CPGB as a maturing of the British Communist movement, and an opportunity for the Party to spread its message to a much wider audience than previous weekly newspapers would allow. With leading Party members in control of the paper, theDaily Workerwas very much a Party newspaper; however, the CPGB wanted it to be much more than an internal bulletin. This paper examines the attempts by the CPGB to create a newspaper that spoke both for and with the voice of the working-classes, whilst also spreading the Party's message. It will ultimately conclude that the CPGB's depiction of it as a paper ‘by the working-classes, for the working-classes’ reflected the Party's efforts at locating its own place within the working-class movement. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]