Search

I denna rapport analyseras effekterna av sänkta parkeringsnormer för bostäder för invånarna i det centrumnära, och relativt nybyggda, bostadsområdet Porslinsfabriken i Göteborg. Porslinsfabriken är med en relativt låg parkeringsnorm på 0,57 platser per lägenhet ett bra exempel på en parkeringspolitik som förs i alltfler kommuner. Resultatet visar att 19 procent av hushållen har minskat bilinnehavet, och man kör även färre antal mil på grund av parkeringsmöjligheterna. En majoritet har emellertid inte förändrat bilinnehavet eller bilanvändningen. Det fanns få skillnader mellan grupper med olika sysselsättning, utbildning, inkomst, ålder, kön och/eller familjesituation i bilinnehav, bilanvändning, eller med avseende på parkeringens konsekvenser för vardagslivet. De allra flesta är nöjda med parkeringssituationen. En parkeringsnorm på 0,57 för centralt belägna bostadsområden med god kollektivtrafikförsörjning, närhet till service och bra förutsättningar för gång-, cykel-, och kollektivtrafik möjliggör sammantaget en minskad bilanvändning. Utbudet av parkeringsplatser i närområdet gav emellertid boende möjligheter att välja mellan parkeringsplatser. En majoritet boende privatbilspendlar som tidigare och många andra har kvar sin bil. Parkeringsnormen kunde därför ha varit lägre. En praktisk implikation av resultaten är att en lägre parkeringsnorm vid nyproduktion av flerfamiljshus måste åtföljas av ett väl samordnat batteri olika åtgärder som god tillgång på kollektivtrafik, höjning av parkeringsavgifter, minskning av allmänna parkeringsplatser och så vidare. This report analyses the effects of lowered parking requirements for residents in the centrally located, relatively newly built housing area, Porslinsfabriken in Gothenburg. Porslinsfabriken has a relatively low parking requirement of 0.57 places per apartment and is a good example of a parking policy being introduced in many Swedish municipalities. The results show that 19 percent of households have decreased their car ownership and also drive fewer miles because of parking opportunities. However, the majority have not altered their car ownership or car use. There are few differences between groups with different occupations, education, age, gender and/or family situation as regards car ownership, car use or the consequences of parking for everyday life. Most are happy with the parking situation. A parking requirement of 0.57 for a centrally located housing area with good public transport, close proximity to services and good opportunities for cycling, walking and using public transport has decreased overall car use. However, the range of parking available in the immediate area gives residents a choice of parking spaces. The majority of residents commute by private car as before, and many others have kept their cars. The parking requirement could therefore have been lower. A practical implication of the results is that a lower parking requirement for construction of new apartment blocks must be accompanied by a well-coordinated battery of other measures, such as good access to public transport, higher parking charges, a reduction in public parking spaces etc.

The ambitions concerning traffic safety increased when the Swedish parliament accepted the governmental white paper "vision zero" in October 1997. Consequently, a new supporting planning guideline for local traffic planning was needed and in July 1998 was the manual "Calm Streets!" published. The manual deals with the design of streets where different modes of transport are mixed in urban traffic systems and where vulnerable users confront a substantial risk to be injured in traffic accidents. The aim of this study is to describe and analyse how local agencies uses the manual in their traffic planning practice with focus on traffic calming measures and the realisation of targets concerning safety and security, environmental sustainability and accessibility. The municipalities in the study are Borlänge, Enköping, Gävle, Göteborg, Jönköping, Karlstad, Linköping, Växjö and Örebro. The major part of the municipalities has conducted a traffic net analysis in accordance with the intentions in the manual. There are, however, differences in traffic planning practice between the cities in the study. These differences are discussed with focus on the following topics: formulation of targets, traffic net analysis, principal redesign proposals and planning conditions. The influence of the new planning guideline and policy on local traffic planning is evident, and a process has been started where differences between the municipalities can be registered. In spite of these differences, it is clear that the development of local traffic planning practice is in line with the initial intentions behind the increased ambitions put forward in the white paper from the government. In order to enhance the on-going change in direction, the need for further research and development is discussed in the report. There is an evident need to perform more research about local traffic planning practice. This knowledge is of great importance for the development of new planning guides and planning tools. The net analysis that has been carried out by the local authorities as a part of the planning process in Calm Streets can be used as a platform for communication and dialog towards inhabitants and relevant organisations in the local setting. The net analysis describes and visualises the local transport system in an efficient way which must be used in the forthcoming planning and development, guided by the national targets for transport policy. This platform can work as a starting point for the construction of a local transport strategy with distinctive targets for the local transport system, communication and demand responses, and identified consequences of different measures situated in an integrated agenda. There is, therefore, an obvious need for accessible compilations of relevant measures.

Syftet med detta projekt var att klarlägga attityden till miljö och transporter samt vilken effekt en elektronisk vägkantsskylt, som gav information i realtid om den egna bilens utsläpp, kunde ha på bilisternas attityder och beteende. Kunde man med hjälp av denna teknik öka bilisternas medvetande om miljöproblemen och, mer specifikt, kunde man få till stånd ett mer miljöanpassat beteende bland bilisterna, exempelvis med avseende på fordonsunderhåll, körbeteende samt val av fordon? För att få klarhet i detta genomfördes två studier: en innan skylten blev utplacerad och en efter det att den tagits ned. Samma personer deltog i för- och efterstudien. Deltagarna fick fylla i två enkäter. Den första enkäten mätte hur pass medvetna deltagarna var om miljöproblemen i stort samt hur detta var kopplat till deras eget användande av bilen. Frågor om fordonsval och körbeteende ingick även i denna enkät. Den andra enkäten var konstruerad på samma sätt som i förstudien, förutom att ytterligare frågor hade tillkommit som handlade om vägkantsskylten och var relaterade till den information som hade utdelats i samband med att skylten sattes upp.

The results from earlier research imply that many individuals appreciate the existence of food stores in their own residential area. But the access to a local food store can be described as a public good which is not possible to purchase in desired quantities on a normal market. The reason for this is that one isolated household can not by itself influence the volume and quality of the local retail service. Therefore, it is not enough to register the revealed preferences on the market, i.e. describe and analyse the actual purchasing behaviour. Some kind of complementary stated preference investigations are necessary if the aim is to evaluate the social consequences of different store locations. This was done by means of postal questionnaires with hypothetical questions about households' choice of stores, together with questions about socio-economic conditions and actual purchasing behaviour. The questionnaire was sent out to 2,000 individuals, living in three city districts in the Swedish capital Stockholm. The answering frequency was 57 percent. The results from the study show that individuals living in the same residential area have different preferences about the demanded level of retailing service in the local surroundings. It is possible to link the differences in preferences to socio-economic conditions and actual purchasing behaviour. Some prefer local stores and are willing to pay for this service, and some prefer to drive their car to more distant stores and take advantage of lower prices. It is also clear that the actual changes in grocery retailing accomodates the preferences of the minority of individuals in the investigated districts, who prefer to make most of their grocery shopping in out-of-town establishments. The large stores attract customers from the entire city, which implies a diminishing market for the smaller local stores in residential areas.

Dagligvaruhandelns strukturomvandling har påverkat städers och tätorters transportsystem, miljö och allmänna attraktionskraft. Ökad biltrafik och ökat bilberoende, minskande servicenivåer i bostadsområden och stadsdelscentra, försämrade innerstäder och fallande marknadsandelar för kollektivtrafik är exempel på problemområden som brukar relateras till detaljhandelns strukturomvandling. Som en reaktion mot befarade negativa konsekvenser har många länder i Europa infört begränsningar mot externa etableringar inom detaljhandeln. De restriktioner som har införts har dock endast delvis baserats på samhällsekonomiska analyser. De forskningsfrågor som behandlas i studien avser distribution av dagligvaror i städer och samhällsekonomisk effektivitet. Detta huvudfokus är i sin tur fördelat på två kompletterande ansatser, dels en rumslig analysmodell som används för att utvärdera olika butiksnäts kostnadseffektivitet dels scenariobeskrivningar i postenkäter som ligger till grund för beskrivning och analys av hushållens efterfrågan på distributionstjänsten närhet/tillgänglighet, representerad av butiker i bostadsområden. Resultaten från modellanalysen och empiriska fallstudier visar att den totala samhällsekonomiska kostnaden för att distribuera dagligvaror minskar om externa stormarknader får betydande marknadsandelar. De kostnadsbesparingar som kan göras inom företagen räcker till för att kompensera för de kostnader som uppkommer när hushållens insatser i distributionen ökar. Men resultaten visar att det finns effektivitetsproblem om den förändrade tjänsteproduktion, som orsakas av förändringar i butiksnätet, fokuseras i analysen. Hypotesen om att s.k. sociala dilemman påverkar hushållens butiksval till nackdel för butiker i bostadsområden bekräftas av resultaten. Individer bosatta i samma bostadsområden/stadsdelar har också olika preferenser för hur butiksnätet ska vara utformat och vilka butiker som ska utnyttjas. Genom att använda statistisk sambandsanalys är det möjligt att relatera dessa skillnader till olika socioekonomiska förhållanden och faktiskt inköpsbeteende. The structural changes in retailing towards out-of-town establishments during the latest decades have profoundly affected the attractiveness of towns and cities and the urban transport system. Increasing car-usage and dependence, decreasing production of retail services in residential areas, degeneration of inner cities and costly revitalisation programs, reduced demand for public transport with negative consequences for quality, are some of the factors that can be observed and, in part, linked to the changes in retailing. Increasing access and usage of the car, in combination with a historic record of accommodating town planning, has enhanced the exploitation of scale economies within distribution firms. The research questions dealt with in this study concern the overall economic efficiency of grocery distribution systems in towns and cities. This main focus is tackled from two complementary perspectives: The construction of a spatial general optimisation model capable of evaluating the social costs associated with different distribution systems in urban areas and stated-preference studies with postal questionnaires to individuals with the aim to describe and analyse the demand for different services produced by grocery stores. It is plausible to assume that the ongoing trend towards more out-of-town stores and increasing car-dependence among consumers in grocery retailing will continue. The large economies of scale at firm level are of course a powerful force behind the structural changes. Moreover, the result from the model based cost analysis indicates that the total social distribution cost will decrease if the large stores increase their market share in typical Swedish cities. The cost savings in the firms will overcompensate for the costs associated with more participation from the households, as long as the street network is not severely congested. However, the result from the study also shows that there are efficiency problems in grocery retailing when the service production supplied by different types of stores is focused. The hypothesis that social dilemmas influence households' choice of store is supported by the results. The results also show that individuals living in the same residential area have different preferences about the demanded level of retailing service in the local surroundings. By using regression models, and other methods, it is possible to link the differences in preferences to socioeconomic background variables and actual purchasing behaviour.

Syftet med rapporten är att översiktligt sammanställa det internationella kunskapsläget vad gäller konsekvenser av restriktioner för biltrafik i städer, med betoning på s.k. traffic calming eller trafiklugnande åtgärder. I viss utsträckning kommer också svensk litteratur att kommenteras. Den konkreta innebörden av begreppet ”konsekvenser” hålls medvetet öppet i förstudien. Ett viktigt motiv för att genomföra studien är att identifiera de konsekvenser som finns belysta i litteraturen och inom vilka områden som kunskapsunderlaget behöver förbättras. Före diskussionen om konsekvenser definieras innebörden av begreppet ”traffic calming”. Dessutom kommenteras den internationella och nationella utvecklingen av trafiklugnande åtgärder översiktligt.

This paper has been produced as part of the research project “Optimal balance between access by private car and the environment in town and cities”. The background to the project is the increasing use of cars in towns and cities, which has been a major problem for town planners and politicians during the whole post-war period. The increasing use of private cars threatens the safety of other road users, for example pedestrians and cyclists. It is also related to a reduction in the number of people using public transport systems which, as a consequence, forces the operators to raise fares, run fewer routes, reduce frequencies and so on. There is no doubt that the increasing volume of motorised traffic has negative impacts on the environment in towns and cities. Important, but analytically difficult, values such as “beauty, comfort, and safety” are under constant pressure from the space-consuming private car in urban settings. The underlying objective for the entire research project is to investigate if the documented development in this area is in line with the public interest, or if there is an imbalance between the actual outcome and the inhabitants’ preferences. The central issue concerns the balance between the benefits to an individual of car-access and the public benefit of a good urban environment. There is no functioning market where this balance can be effectively settled because “urban environment” is an example of a public good that can not be purchased in desired quantities on a traditional market. Problems of non-rivalry in consumption and free riders hamper the functioning of the market as an efficient mechanism for allocating scarce resources. The isolated behaviour of an individual, or a household, has a negligible impact on the total outcome, which in turn influences the behaviour in certain directions. Paper published in the Discovering Local Transport Plans and Road Traffic Reduction, Proceedings of Seminar C, European Transport Conference, Homerton College, Cambridge, 11-13 September 2000. Volume P438, PTRC London