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Nitroaromatic compounds were massively used in the formulation of explosives during both world wars. Even several decades after the end of these wars, their residues are suspected to be widely present in the environment. Their occurrence and effect on ecosystems and human health are still not fully determined. This paper describes the development of a method for the determination of 28 nitroaromatic compounds in water, including isomers of nitrotoluene (NT), dinitrotoluene (DNT), trinitrotoluene (TNT), nitrobenzene (NB), dinitrobenzene (DNB), chloronitrobenzene (ClNB), chlorodinitrobenzene (DNCB), nitronaphthalene (NN), dinitronaphthalene (DNN), nitroaniline (NA), dinitroanisole (DNAN), diphenylamine (DPA), and nitrodiphenylamine (nitro-DPA). In order to separate and individually quantify all the analytes with the best possible sensitivity, stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) was chosen as the extraction and pre-concentration step prior to gas chromatography (GC) separation and tandem mass spectrometry detection (MS/MS). Our SBSE optimization efforts focused on parameters such as the type of stir bar, ionic strength, addition of organic solvent, and extraction and desorption times. After these optimizations, the analytical method enabled us to reach limits of quantification (LOQs) between 1 and 50 ng/L in tap water, groundwater, and surface water. The method was applied to the determination of targeted nitroaromatic explosive residues in spring and groundwater samples collected in an area where mine warfare had raged during World War I. Up to 16 different nitroaromatic compounds were detected in the same sample. The highest concentrations were recorded for 2,4-DNT and 1,3-DNB (1700 and 2690 ng/L respectively).

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are key ingredients of firefighting foams designed to suppress fires involving flammable and combustible liquids. Such foams are used by firefighters during fire training at dedicated sites. Because PFASs are very persistent chemicals, substantial soil and groundwater contamination has been observed in the vicinity of firefighter training areas. However, very few data are available on PFAS contamination of wastewater and runoff water on such sites. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of more than 50 PFASs in 43 water samples (effluent from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), lagoon, runoff water, and wastewater drained from firefighter training areas) collected from a large firefighter training site, using target and suspect screening. A comparison of the PFAS classes analyzed revealed the overwhelming contribution of fluorotelomers. This indicates that the PFAS emission from the use of firefighting foams cannot be monitored only by measuring perfluoroalkyl acids. Based on the PFAS concentrations measured through target screening, the PFAS mass discharged into the river receiving WWTP effluent and the lagoon was on average 387 ± 183 kg and 56 ± 15 kg per year respectively. Due to the unavailability of standards, it was impossible to take into account the PFASs detected with suspect screening. The present study emphasizes that, above and beyond soil and groundwater contamination, such sites also contribute to the PFAS burden of surface water.

The main objective of this study was to evaluate potential exposure of a significant part of the French population to alkylphenol and bisphenol contaminants due to water consumption. The occurrence of 11 alkylphenols and bisphenols was studied in raw water and treated water samples from public water systems. One sampling campaign was performed from October 2011 to May 2012. Sampling was equally distributed across 100 French departments. In total, 291 raw water samples and 291 treated water samples were analyzed in this study, representing approximately 20 % of the national water supply flow. The occurrence of the target compounds was also determined for 29 brands of bottled water (polyethylene terephthalate [PET] bottles, polycarbonate [PC] reusable containers, and aluminum cans [ACs]) and in 5 drinking water networks where epoxy resin has been used as coating for pipes. In raw water samples, the highest individual concentration was 1,430 ng/L for bisphenol A (BPA). Of the investigated compounds, nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol 1-carboxylic acid (NP1EC), BPA, and nonylphenol 2-ethoxylate (NP2EO) predominated (detected in 18.6, 18.6, 14.4, and 10 % of samples, respectively). Geographical variability was observed with departments crossed by major rivers or with high population densities being more affected by contamination. In treated water samples, the highest individual concentration was 505 ng/L for NP. Compared with raw water, target compounds were found in lower amounts in treated water. This difference suggests a relative effectiveness of certain water treatments for the elimination of these pollutants; however, there is also their possible transformation by reaction with chlorine. No target compounds were found in drinking water pipes coated with epoxy resin, in PET bottled water, or in water from ACs. However, levels of BPA in PC bottled water ranged from 70 to 4,210 ng/L with greater level observed in newly manufactured bottles. 4-Tert-butylphenol was only detected in recently manufactured bottles. The values observed for the monitored compounds indicate that drinking water is most likely not the main source of exposure.