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Ruffed lemurs (Varecia spp.) exhibit a unique suite of behavioral traits compared to other lemur species, which includes their fluid fission-fusion social dynamics, communal rearing of parked litters, and pronounced frugivory in their humid rainforest habitats. Given these traits, and the dense rainforests they inhabit, vocal communication may be key to maintaining social cohesion, coordinating infant care, and/or defending their high-quality food resources. Indeed, they are known for their raucous 'roar-shriek' calls. However, there has been surprisingly little research on vocal communication in Varecia species and only two previously published repertoires, both of which were qualitative descriptions of their calls. In this study, we quantitatively examined the vocal repertoire of wild black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) at Mangevo, Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. We characterized 11 call types using 33 bioacoustic parameters related to frequency, duration, tonality, and composition. We also used discriminant function analysis and hierarchical clustering to quantitatively and objectively classify call types within the black-and-white ruffed lemur vocal repertoire. The repertoire consists of both monosyllabic and multisyllabic calls that are individually given or emitted in contagious choruses. Eight of the 11 calls were also used in combination or in larger multi-call sequences. The discriminant function analysis correctly assigned call types with 87% success, though this varied greatly by call type (1-65%). Hierarchical clustering identified 3-4 robust clusters, indicating low clustering structure in the data and suggesting that V. variegata exhibits a graded vocal repertoire. Future work should consider the environmental and behavioral contexts in which calls are used to better understand the function of these call types and combinations., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Japan Monkey Centre.)

Vocal communication is an important modality for group-living primates inhabiting dense forest habitats that can hinder visual and olfactory signals. Nevertheless, research on primate vocalizations has historically focused on a narrow subset of haplorhine taxa; comparatively few studies have been focused on strepsirrhines, despite facing similar ecological and social challenges. Ruffed lemurs (Varecia)-a taxon known for their raucous calls-are rainforest specialists that exhibit strong fission-fusion dynamics and communally rear large litters of young. However, surprisingly few studies have examined Varecia vocalizations in the wild, meaning virtually nothing is known about the call types or how they facilitate their unique social and reproductive strategies. Our goal for this study was to examine how various contextual factors such as weather, behavioral state, and subgroup size and composition affected vocal activity across call types in wild black-and-white ruffed lemurs. We conducted focal follows on 31 individuals (two communities) in Mangevo (Ranomafana National Park) from May-August 2019 to record behavioral and vocal activity. We distinguished 11 call types, although three (hum, roar-shriek, chatter) constituted the majority of vocal activity. Calling rates were consistent throughout the day, but decreased with high rainfall. We found sex- and subgroup-specific differences in call usage, likely related to female dominance and subgroup composition, respectively. We identified behavioral contexts that some call types were consistently given in; this can be used to help infer call function. This study provides some of the first quantitative analyses of ruffed lemur vocal communication and lays the groundwork for more systematic hypothesis testing in future studies., (© 2021. Japan Monkey Centre.)

Infant handling (holding or carrying) by adult males is rare in mammals; however, high levels have been reported in some primates. Though infant handling is a costly behaviour, there are many benefits that male handlers can accrue. Infant handling by males is most conspicuous in platyrrhines and tends to be uncommon in catarrhines. In the latter species, research on male-infant interactions has focused on low-cost behaviours, such as proximity and grooming. However, to better understand the evolution of infant handling by males, more data on its occurrence across the Primate order are essential, even in species where it is relatively uncommon. We compare the occurrence of infant handling by males in three closely related species of catarrhine: Colobus vellerosus, C. guereza, and C. angolensis ruwenzorii. We collected focal animal samples on infants to quantify infant handling rates and durations, and found that adult male C. a. ruwenzorii handled infants much more frequently and for much longer than males in the other two species. We discuss how C. a. ruwenzorii's unique social organization may explain high levels of infant handling by adult males in this species. More long-term and detailed comparisons of infant handling across species and populations will shed light on how sociality has shaped the evolution of this behaviour in the Primate order.

Analyses of genetic polymorphisms can aid our understanding of intra- and interspecific variation in primate sociality, ecology, and behavior. Studies of primate opsin genes are prime examples of this, as single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the X-linked opsin gene underlie variation in color vision. For primate species with polymorphic trichromacy, genotyping opsin SNVs can generally indicate whether individual primates are red-green color-blind (denoted homozygous M or homozygous L) or have full trichromatic color vision (heterozygous ML). Given the potential influence of color vision on behavior and fitness, characterizing the color vision status of study subjects is becoming commonplace for many primate field projects. Such studies traditionally involve a multi-step sequencing-based method that can be costly and time-consuming. Here we present a new reliable, rapid, and relatively inexpensive method for characterizing color vision in primate populations using high resolution melt analysis (HRMA). Using lemurs as a case study, we characterized variation at exons 3 and/or 5 of the X-linked opsin gene for 87 individuals representing nine species. We scored opsin genotypes and color vision status using both traditional sequencing-based methods as well as our novel melting-curve based HRMA protocol. For each species, the melting curves of varying genotypes (homozygous M, homozygous L, heterozygous ML) differed in melting temperature and/or shape. Melting curves for each sample were consistent across replicates, and genotype-specific melting curves were consistent across DNA sources (blood vs. feces). We show that opsin genotypes can be quickly and reliably scored using HRMA once lab-specific reference curves have been developed based on known genotypes. Although the protocol presented here focuses on genotyping lemur opsin loci, we also consider the larger potential for applying this approach to various types of genetic studies of primate populations.