Search

Lectins are defined as a group of nonimmune proteins present mostly in plants (and also in some animals and microorganisms) that are known to bind with carbohydrates (mono- and oligosaccharides) with reversible and specific protein/animal cell agglutinating properties. These proteins are present in sufficient amounts to perform various crucial biological functions, viz., plants for defense, adhesion in bacteria, and in case of animals, binding of different proteins. Due to the efficiency and specificity of lectins to bind with carbohydrates, these are mostly used for various biomedical applications. Different types of carbohydrates get overexpressed in a number of diseases, ultimately acting as biomarkers for those diseases to be detected by the lectins. For getting better output, lectins are conjugated with materials that would provide a base for lectin’s efficacy enhancement. After binding to a specific material, the randomness of the molecule gets decreased, which leads to an increase in the proficiency of the biomolecule. For this purpose, nanoparticles (NPs) act as the best platform for lectin conjugation. In general, the conjugation between the NPs and lectins takes place via covalent and non-covalent binding. All these linkages are preferably used in the binding strategies of these moieties. This binding of lectins to NPs helps to increase the specific targeting ability of the NPs by avoiding any nonspecific interaction. Due to higher specificity, NP-lectin conjugates find enormous applications in biomedical fields. In this chapter, we have tried to provide recent developments about these newly emerged nanoconjugates. A brief discussion is given on different lectin-NP conjugation techniques and its characterization followed by their biomedical applications.

Fluorescence imaging by making use of promising fluorescent contrast agents allows noninvasive, sensitive, and real-time detection of biological events. In the past, imaging was done using conventional organic fluorophores, viz., organic dyes which suffer from photobleaching and spectral cross talk; cellular intolerance thus makes it difficult to use them for in vivo detection. Because of excellent photoluminescence properties, robust chemical inertness, and low cytotoxicity, nanoparticles (NPs) are well explored for bioimaging applications over the past decade. So far safety concerns related to these NPs are still unaddressed, and thus NP application in clinical imaging is in the evaluation stage. However, in the future, these could be transformed into new diagnostic probes which can detect diseases at their early stage, thus improving both preclinical research and patient health.

Nanomaterials (NMs) play a vital role in molecular imaging, disease diagnosis, and therapy because of their unique chemical and physical properties. The importance of nanomaterials in biomedical applications cannot be overlooked as they are the potential carrier and delivery agents of imaging probes, therapeutic drugs, or active biological material to desired target sites. Nanomaterial-based biomedicines have significant advantages over traditional or conventional ones such as better sensitivity, high target specificity, bioavailability, and biodistribution. In this chapter we have given a brief account on the advancements of different types of nanomaterials for their use in the molecular and bioimaging of a number of dreadful diseases including cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. This chapter also gives details on the use of these nanomaterials in disease detection and therapy at the preclinical as well as clinical aspects. Finally, we have concluded with the future outlook for the proper use of these nanomaterials in molecular imaging, diagnostics, and therapy.

Nanotechnology has given a plethora of nanoparticles (NPs) during the last decades, which have been extensively used in molecular imaging, diagnostics and therapy. Despite recent progress in this area, there are only a few nanoformulations that have entered into clinical trials. We must identify new nanoimaging probes and their targets for therapy, develop new nanoagents for diagnostics, and position them in a clinically useful and cost-effective manner. This chapter summarizes the current status of NPs used as molecular imaging probes, their use in the diagnosis of disease-related analytes, and also their effective use in therapy.

The interactions between nanoparticles and macromolecules forming protein corona (PC) introduce new applications and challenges to the nanoparticles (NPs), altering the efficacy and biocompatibility of nanotechnology-based formulations. Accordingly, the overall properties and identity of the biomolecules change at this nano-bio interface. Although the nano-bio interface poses hurdles for the effective clinical translation of nanomedicines, it also creates a future window for advancements in nanomedicine. Therefore, this chapter will cover a comprehensive outlook of the advantages and disadvantages of the nano-bio interface with respect to the translational nanomedicine. The implications of nano-bio interface on toxicity, immune recognition, targeting, biodistribution, intracellular uptake, and drug release will also be reviewed. An overview of some of the currently performed research on NP-based clinical translation is also addressed. However, in spite of huge efforts of researchers and other agencies, only few of the nanomedicines made go through the clinical trials. To fill the gap between efforts of the researchers and the clinical translation of nanomedicine, it is need of the hour to collect data from in vivo and in vitro experiments for debugging the nano-bio interfaces. A brief overview of infusion reactions (IRs) outlining different terminologies used to define these reactions and highlighting the gaps in present research nanomedicine-based infusion reactions has also been discussed. Finally, we have presented the strategies to improve the current understanding of these IRs and also to overcome these adverse reactions.

The integration of nanotechnology with the personalized medicine has provided unparallel and unique opportunities for improving the way of treatment for many dreadful diseases. Nanomaterials (NMs), because of their explorative properties, offer a number of advantages in the therapeutics and diagnostics of diseases. The NM-based tools offer wide tunability in designing of the nanomedicine because of the smaller sizes, the large surface-to-volume ratio, and also the ease with which the NM surface can be modified to get desirable cell/tissue targeting. In this introductory chapter, a brief overview on the use of NMs for the personalized nanomedicine and the factors that need to be considered for successful translation of these personalized nanomedicines has been addressed. Also, a brief summary is given on different types of NMs that have been used for personalized medicine and are under clinical trials. Finally we have concluded the chapter with the perspective about how the proper understanding of nanobiotechnology, personalized medicine, and genomics can provide a better system for diagnosis, treatment, and management of diseases at the individual level.

Biomolecules are the key factors for most of the biological processes. Immobilization is an impressive technique which is used to stabilize free biomolecules in solution. Immobilized biomolecules are more robust and more resistant to environmental changes. The main objective of the immobilization of biomolecules, namely., enzymes, is to enhance the economics of biocatalysis processes. Additionally, immobilization improves many properties of enzymes such as performance in organic solvents, pH tolerance, heat stability, and functional stability. More importantly, the heterogeneity of the immobilized biomolecule systems allows an easy recovery of both biomolecules and products, multiple reuse, continuous operation of enzymatic processes, rapid termination of reactions, and greater variety of bioreactor designs. This chapter presents an overview of the recent literature reports for biomolecule immobilization on nanomaterial surfaces by various techniques. It also demonstrates the need for immobilization and different applications at various platform.

Plant-derived polymeric nanomaterials play an important role as excipients in different biomedical applications ranging from nanomedicine to tissue engineering. These provide versatile biocompatible platforms for controlled drug release with the advantage of being most cost-effective materials. Inorganic nanoparticles have received considerable global interest amongst biomedical researchers, but their toxicity concerns cannot be ignored. In this context, the biomass has been recognized as potential source to obtain different types of functional nanomaterials. These nanomaterials have polysaccharide backbone, which consists of monomer units of carbohydrate and mimic the extracellular matrix of tissues, thus making these biocompatible by nature. Further, the ease of surface functionalization, natural abundance, together with high stability make these ideal biomaterial candidates for next generation health care applications. Here, in this chapter, we have described the biomedical applications of different plant-based nanomaterials, with a major focus towards using these as drug delivery agents, bioprinting materials, wound healing agents, etc.

In the recent era, nanomaterials (NMs) have been found useful for sensing as well as detection of several biomarkers, and these strategies are likely to develop point of care (PoC) diagnostics, which can be used for early disease detection and various therapeutic applications. Application of NMs in biosensing also allows the use of many novel signal transduction technologies in their preparation. The use of high surface area of NMs plays a crucial role in developing nanobiosensors. These nanoscale structures may include nanoparticles (NPs), nanotubes, nanorods, nanofibers, and thin films. Nanobiosensors have greater sensitivity, selectivity, and fast response time. Biosensing technologies include various types of techniques, viz., electrochemical, amperometric, voltametric, fluorescence, etc. Particularly, fluorescence-based sensing technologies possess many advantages in their detection, viz., simple instrumentation, less background signals or noise, and having potential for multiplexed analysis. Similarly, colorimetric sensors have been well-known for their naked eye visualization, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness features. This chapter describes the advancements in promising NMs which are aimed for on-site clinical applications and those which can be used as a personalized diagnostic device in different disease conditions.

Nanoparticles (NPs) are being extensively used in the field of nanomedicines. Different types of NPs are administered into the body by various routes. NPs come in contact with cells inside the body. Cellular response of NPs is affected by size, shape, surface chemistry, and cellular uptake pathways of NPs. In addition to this, type of cells, various cell lines, and growth media are also found to affect the cellular response of NPs. NPs induce diverse cellular responses like apoptosis, necrosis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. NPs also form a protein corona inside the biological media which may alter their identity and behaviour as compared to bare NPs. In this chapter, we have made an attempt to throw light on cellular uptake pathways of NPs, monitoring of endocytic pathways followed by NPs, factors affecting cellular responses of therapeutic NPs, and protein corona formation, characterisation and its implications on fate of NPs.

Nanoscale materials (NSMs) are gaining attention due to their small size and unique physiochemical properties. Different approaches are used for the synthesis of NSMs. NSMs cannot be visualized by ordinary instruments. Instruments with high resolution are required for their characterisation. NSMs offer enhanced activity and specificity to encapsulate drugs. NSM are used as vehicles for site specific delivery of drugs inside the body. In this chapter, approaches for the synthesis of NSMs, and characterisation techniques for NSMs like SEM, TEM, AFM, DLS, XRD, and FTIR have been explained briefly. In addition, this chapter also covers zero dimensional one dimensional, two dimensional and three dimensional NSMs briefly. Detailed information about approaches of targeted delivery like passive and active have been covered in this chapter. NSMs like polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, liposomes, quantum dots, polymeric micelles, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, and magnetic nanoparticles used in targeted drug delivery have also been explained in this chapter.

Theragnostic NPs give new hope in simultaneous diagnosis and therapy of a disease at curable stage. Theragnosis is the fundamental requirement of personalized medicine. For successful theragnosis applications, the imaging agents and drugs should be efficiently delivered, resulting in adequate imaging signal or drug concentration in the targeted disease site. The selection of NPs for imaging, diagnosis and therapy was based on their biomimetic features with higher surface to volume ratio of the nanomaterials. The essential properties of nanomedicines involve early and precise diagnosis of clinical conditions providing an efficient treatment without secondary effects. Thus, nanotheragnostic probes are much better than conventional treatments where the diagnosis and therapy are way apart from each other. This chapter briefs about the recent advancement of nanotheragnosis research with future scope and associated hurdles.