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Two new compounds, thannilignan 9-O-β-glucoside (1) and 2-(β-glucopyranosyl)-3-isoxazolin-5-one derivative (2), and seven known compounds were isolated from the methanol extract of Terminalia bellirica leaves, collected in Bangladesh. The structures of the compounds were elucidated using spectroscopic analysis. Among these isolated compounds, corilagin (3) was cytotoxic against human gastric adenocarcinoma cell line AGS at an IC

Terminalia hadleyana (subsp. carpentariae C. T. White) is native to Northern Australia where fruits of this plant have been used as a traditional food by the Australian Indigenous people. The aim of this study was to evaluate the morphology, chemical composition, functional (e.g. vitamin C, phenolic content) and antimicrobial properties of T. carpentariae fruits, harvested from the wild at full maturity. Variability has been observed in both fruit morphology (size and weight) and chemical composition. Proximate analysis showed that these fruits have high concentration of dietary fibre (DF) (51.2 g/100 gDW), and minerals such as K (1780 mg/100 g DW), Ca (373 mg/100 g DW) and Mg (150 mg/100 g DW). High levels of total phenolic content (TPC) (11,392 mg GAE/100 g DW) and vitamin C (11,046 mg/100 g DW) were also observed. Fruit extracts also showed inhibitory effects against the growth of foodborne microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shewanella putrefaciens. Overall, these results contribute to provide with relevant information of the potential of T. carpentariae fruit as a functional ingredient to the Australian Indigenous communities and the emerging Australian native food industry.

Increased accumulation of heavy metal ions such as Cr6+ and Co2+ due to release from prostheses and metallic implants has been reported. These metal ions have been shown to affect both resting and activated lymphocytes. Natural remedies towards mitigating the cytotoxic effects of metal ions are clearly warranted. Polyphenolic compounds which are part of hydrolysable tannins from natural plant sources are considered effective in cheating heavy metal ions in a biological system. We have isolated and characterized a polyphenolic compound (ellagic acid) from Terminalia arjuna fruits that has been tested for its ability to attenuate the metal ion toxicity in primary human lymphocytes in culture. Cr6+ and Co2+ (100 μM) decreased lymphocyte viability and proliferation and increased apoptosis of resting as well as CD3 and/or CD28-stimulated lymphocytes. Metal ions markedly diminished the cytokine (interleukin-2 and interferon-γ) secretion from activated lymphocytes. Pretreatment with ellagic acid at 25, 50, and 100 μM concentrations effectively improved viability and proliferative responses of both resting and activated lymphocytes, while attenuating the apoptotic index. Ellagic acid also tended to normalize the cytokine secretion from the activated lymphocytes even in the presence of metal ions, suggesting broad effects on the adaptive immune system.

The wood wastes from urban forestry management can be used for the production of bioenergy, producing zero net emission of greenhouse gases and giving more appropriate destination and greater added value to the material. To enable this use, we investigated the characteristics of charcoal produced from tree species commonly used in urban forestry in a subtropical region. The charcoal produced was evaluated for its yield and quality, through chemical analysis. Regarding the parameters required for household use or in steelmaking, none of the species met the recommended criteria for ash content, but showed potential for charcoal production in relation to moisture content, charcoal yield, and contents of non-condensable gases, pyroligneous liquid, volatile materials, and fixed carbon. Satisfactory charcoal yield and quality were obtained from the species Nectandra megapotamica, Terminalia catappa, Handroanthus sp., and Cenostigma pluviosum. We recommend investigating the partial introduction of these residues with the wood of species grown for the production of charcoal, or other species from urban forestry not yet evaluated. This waste valorization strategy can be incorporated in solid waste management plans regarding the choice of species for urban forestry, in order to meet this demand and fulfill its environmental role.

The relationships among lauxaniid genera Calliopum Strand, 1928, Lauxania Latreille, 1804 and related species from genus Sapromyza Fallen, 1820 are not fully understood. In this work, we provide a detailed morphological study of terminalia of selected species along with Bayesian phylogenetical analysis of DNA sequences of 4 gene fragments (16 S rRNA, 28 S rRNA, EF1-alpha and COI). Females of Calliopum have a characteristic structure of their terminalia with the exception of C. geniculatum (Fabricius,1805), which is almost identical to L. siciliana Merz, 2001 and L. bilobata Merz, 2001. Female terminalia of L. cylindricornis are rigid and fairly complex, in L. minor Martinek, 1974 they are simple and rigid and in L. albomaculata Strobl, 1909 they are membranous and retractable. In phylogenetic analysis, L. cylindricornis (Fabricius, 1794) clusters with Calliopum with high support. Lauxania minor appears to be sister to Sapromyza columbi Frey, 1936, an endemic species to the Canary Islands, however, support is very weak. Lauxania albomaculata clusters with S. schnabli Papp, 1987 with low support. S. madeirensis Frey, 1949, endemic to Madeira, falls well within Minettia fasciata species group. Our results support the non-monophyly of Lauxania, with the subgenera Callixania Papp, 1978 and Czernushka Shatalkin, 2000 being divergent in terms of DNA sequences from Lauxania s. str. The affinities of Calliopum geniculatum remain equivocal, yet seem to be closer to Lauxania s. str. Suggested systematic changes: Czernushka albomaculata (Strobl, 1909) comb. n, Callixania minor (Martinek,1974) comb. n, Callixania martineki (Shatalkin, 1999) comb. n, Minettia madeirensis (Frey, 1949) comb. n.

Punicalagin, a bioactive ellagitannin predominantly found in Pomegranate, has a wide range of health benefits including potent antioxidant properties. The metabolism of punicalagin in human body produces urolithins and ellagic acid. Ellagic acid is a natural phenolic antioxidant and is also known for its antiproliferative activities. Terminalia ferdinandiana (Kakadu plum) was reported to be a rich source of ellagic acid. In this study, an UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for accurate determination of ellagic acid levels and bioactive ellagitannins (punicalagin and castalagin). Total ellagic acid content in the fruits and leaves were 2.76 and 9.54 g/100 g DW. Punicalagin contents in the fruits and leaves were 74 and 49 mg/100 g DW, and castalagin contents were 1.1 and 0.8 mg/100 g DW. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about punicalagin and castalagin concentrations in Kakadu plum fruits and leaves. The findings are very promising regarding the potential use of Kakadu plum fruit and leaf extracts as natural preservatives in the food industry.

A permanent forest dynamics study plot was established in Bannerghatta National Park (BNP) to understand the impact of climatic variability on deciduous forest trees. A 1 ha (100 m × 100 m) Permanent Preservation Plot (PPP) was established following the Centre for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS) protocol. All the woody plants (trees, shrubs, climbers) greater than 1 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) were tagged and measured. A total of 1,586 individuals were identified, tagged and included trees, shrubs, and climbers belonging to 28 flowering plant families with Olea dioica, Cipadessa baccifera and Ziziphus oenoplia as the dominant species. The tagged 1,586 individuals included 68 species with the top 10 species accounting for 74% of total abundance. The most ubiquitous species were Hiptage benghalensis and Ziziphus oenoplia occupying 23 quadrats out of the total 25. Terminalia arjuna had the highest Importance Value Index (IVI) followed by Olea dioica and Terminalia bellirica. Combretaceae with three species had the highest Family Importance Value (FIV) followed by Euphorbiaceae, Oleaceae and Rhamnaceae. A large number of species showed random dispersion which is not significant. However, in species having aggregated dispersion, the dispersion pattern is significant (P

The genus Terminalia (Family Combretaceae) is amongst the most widely used traditional medicinal plants worldwide. The present study aimed to investigate the phytochemical variation, and medicinal properties among three species of Terminalia, viz. Terminalia arjuna (TA), T. bellerica (TB) and T. chebula (TC) found in North western Himalayan Region, India. Phytochemical variation was done using spectrophotometric quantification of total phenolic and flavonoids. Gallic acid and Rutin were used as marker compounds. Quantification of phytocompounds was done using HPLC method. Total phenolic content (TPC) was highest in fruits of TC (350 ± 20.19 mg/g gallic acid equivalents, GAE) followed by bark of TA (233.64 ± 24.31 mg/g GAE), leaves of TC (200 ± 12.23 mg/g GAE), fruits of TB (186.5 ± 36.02 mg/g GAE), leaves of TB (170.36 ± 34.17 mg/g GAE) and leaves of TA (140.52 ± 36.19 mg/g GAE). Total flavonoid content (TFC) was highest in leaves of TC (212 ± 8.27 mg/g rutin equivalents, RE), followed by bark of TA (181.095 ± 13.87 mg/g RE), fruits of TC (153.8 ± 15.37 mg/g RE), leaves of TA (101.65 ± 6.21 mg/g RE), leaves of TB (93.65 ± 29.86 mg/g RE) and fruits of TB (84.71 ± 22.3 mg/g RE). Gallic acid was found to be higher in leaves of TB (74 µg/ml); whereas rutin was highest in leaves of TC (9.3 µg/ml). FTIR analysis showed the presence of several common peaks and some unique peaks in all the three species. Highest antioxidant potential was shown by TC (fruits) with IC50 value of 5.8 ± 1.4 µg/ml (DPPH), 4.35 ± 0.24 µM (FRAP), 4.55 ± 0.72 µg/ml (NO)] and TC (leaves) with IC50 value of 4.38 ± 1.25 µg/ml (DPPH), 8.6 ± 0.59 µM (FRAP), 5.95 ± 0.64 µg/ml (NO)]. Similarly, the antibacterial potency was also higher in fruits and leaves of TC as clearly visible with diameter of zone of inhibition and MIC value against all tested bacterial strains. The current study highlighted the medicinal importance of all the three members of Terminalia found in North-western Himalayas. T. chebula ranked higher among all the three species of Terminalia in biological activities, thereby validating its importance in therapeutics and food industry.

The work sought to investigate, using response surface analysis, the synergistic antioxidant activity among four plants—Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula, Terminalia arjuna Wight and Arn., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., and Phyllanthus emblica L.—which are comprised in the Chatuphalathika recipe. The response surface analysis of the four-component simplex lattice design was performed using the combination index method. The mass ratio of the four plants was varied. The total phenolic content, antioxidant activity based on the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) from 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays were monitored and used to calculate the combination index value. Results showed that the total phenolic content was high and the IC50 values from DPPH and FRAP assays were low when T. chebula, T. arjuna, and T. bellirica were used without P. emblica. Synergistic antioxidant activity was also observed among them. The mixture of T. chebula, T. arjuna, and T. bellirica without P. emblica gave better synergistic antioxidant activity than when P. emblica was incorporated. The data from this work could be used to select the suitable mass ratio of the plants for the preparation of the supplementary health products in further work.

Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana) fruit is characterised by its high levels of natural ascorbic acid compared with other domesticated plants in the world (e.g. more than 75 times that of oranges). The concentration of ascorbic acid is one of the main factors that define the price of this fruit (as fresh or dry powder) in the market. As many other specialty foods and commodities, this food is not exempt against adulteration. Adulteration can be simply performed by the addition of water (dilution), low-quality fruit and synthetic ascorbic acid and other chemical products. The ability of attenuated total reflectance mid infrared spectroscopy (ATR-MIR) was evaluated as a tool to detect the level of adulteration of Kakadu plum powder with a synthetic source of ascorbic acid. The coefficient of determination (R2) and the standard error of cross validation (SECV) obtained for the prediction of level and source of adulteration were 0.85 (3.2%), and 0.83 (0.30%) respectively. This study demonstrated that the integration of ATR-MIR spectroscopy with chemometric analysis could be a valuable method to identify the adulteration of Kakadu plum powder with synthetic sources of ascorbic acid.

The present study was performed to document the different ethnomedicinal plants used by Gond and Madia Gond tribes in the Gadchiroli District of Maharashtra (India). After screening, a total of 120 persons belonging to Gond and Madia tribes were interviewed for the use of medicinal plants. As a result of this interaction, a total of 79 medicinal plants were identified to which they claimed to use for the treatment of 34 ailments. These plants belonged to 30 families and 57 genera of the angiosperms. The ethno botanical indices such as the informant consensus factor (ICF), relative frequency of citation (RFC) were also evaluated. The most important plant family was Fabaceae (10.1%) followed by Mimosaceae (7.6%), Moraceae (7.6%), Caesalpiniaceae (6.3%) and Rubiaceae (6.3%). Some of the dominant genera reported were Ficus (5 species), Acacia (3 species), Terminalia (3 species), and Albizia (2 species). Some of the important ailments claimed to be treated were dermal disorders, blood-related diseases, diabetes, edema and fever. During this study ICF values for different ailments ranged from 0.0 to 0.84, swelling aliments had the highest ICF i.e. 0.84 with 27 reports and five plant species used. The highest RFC value (0.45) was found for Acacia catechu (Family: Mimosaceae) and the lowest RFC value (0.09) was found for Emblica officinalis, (Family: Euphorbiaceae).

Rising prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in sub-Saharan Africa has necessitated surveys of antidiabetic medicinal plants. This study assessed the antidiabetic mechanism of Terminalia catappa aqueous leaf extract (TCA) in high fat/low dose streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats. T2DM was induced by a combination of high-fat diet and low dose STZ (30 mg/kg bw) and the animals were administered with TCA (400 and 800 mg/kg bw) orally daily for 28 days. Biochemical parameters and indices for diabetes including renal function tests and pancreatic histology were evaluated. Relative expression of hepatic insulin resistance, signalling and glucose transport genes were also assessed. Induction of T2DM resulted in significant (p IRS-1), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT) and glucose transporter isoform 4 (GLUT-4) mRNA. Oral treatment of diabetic animals with TCA significantly (p

Knowledge about the inherent complexity of the composition, nutrition, and physiology of different plant tissues and parts is required as this will allow for the discovery of new or improved properties (e.g. new bioactive compounds with health-benefitting activities, antimicrobial substances to reduce food spoilage activity). This paper reports the use, analysis and interpretation of the mid-infrared spectra of different plant parts (fruits and leaves) from an Australian native tropical plant, Terminalia ferdinandiana Exell [Combretaceae]. The use of infrared spectroscopy together with chemometric techniques will allow to obtain different levels of information about the chemical composition of leaf and fruit samples associated with maturity. Freeze-dried powder and puree of Terminalia ferdinandiana is commercially available as a functional food ingredient, whereas leaves or any other tissues are not considered as functional ingredients. The use of mid-infrared spectroscopy can provide an initial screening tool for the discovery and development of new ingredients and products. This technology can be an easy to use, cost-effective and high throughout method to ensure quality and authenticity of food products throughout the value chain. The incorporation of these techniques might be considered the base of bio spectroscopy analysis as proxies to study tropical species with distinctive bioactive properties and nutritional value such as Terminalia ferdinandiana.

This work sought to apply the four-component simplex lattice experimental design to determine the chemical interaction between Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula, Terminalia arjuna Wight and Arn., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., and Phyllanthus emblica L., which are found in the traditional Chatuphalathika remedy. The four phenolic compounds, gallic acid, corilagin, chebulagic acid, and chebulinic acid, were quantified using validated high-performance liquid chromatography. A response surface analysis was also conducted to describe the level of interaction among the four plant ingredients. The results showed that a low content of P. emblica in the herbal remedy exhibited a positive effect on the extraction yield and the phenolic compounds content, except gallic acid. According to the combination index value, the low content of P. emblica in the herbal remedy revealed a positive effect on the interaction of extraction yield and the phenolic compounds content. The maximum interaction was found at an equal weight ratio of T. chebula, T. arjuna, and T. bellirica, with no P. emblica. The formula which boasts the equal weight ratio of three Terminalia plants exhibited a 167% increase in phenolic compounds as compared with the effects of any of the plants individually. Data from this work could be used to describe the synergy of plant ingredients contained in the Chatuphalathika remedy based on the chemical analysis aspect.

Phytoterapy has been used in aquaculture for disease control, especially the Terminalia catappa that demonstrated excellent antimicrobial potential. The aquaculture commonly uses the extract obtained at room temperature, but the hot aqueous extract (HAE) and its effects on the fish are still unknown. This study aimed to determine the lethal concentration (LC50) of HAE from Terminalia catappa in juvenile fish Colossoma macropomum as well as to evaluate hematological and histological parameters. Two extracts were obtained in different temperatures and submitted to HPLC. Despite both extracts presented the similar chemical compounds, HAE showed higher levels of compounds and then it was selected. For acute toxicity test, six different extract concentrations (0.00, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, and 0.50 g/L) in triplicate was used. At the end of the experiment, all fishes were submitted to hematological and histological analysis. The LC50 was determined using trimmed Spearman-Karber method, and water quality (pH, temperature, DO, electrical conductivity, and ammonia) were measured. The results were submitted to ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test (p < 0.05). The HAE showed LC50 of 0.41 g/L with changes on water parameters, such as pH and conductivity, as well as the fish behavior. HAE also altered hematologic parameters and showed histopathological changes on the gill and liver using high concentration of the extract or longtime exposure in low extract concentrations. Despite HAE showed higher concentration of compounds, it remains considered as a practically non-toxic product. Nonetheless, water quality, hematological, and histological alterations must be considered to determine concentrations and strategies of application in vivo.

Terminalia bellirica(Gaertn.) Roxb., Combretaceae, fruits are used in Indian system of medicine for multiple therapeutic applications. The present study was aimed to investigate the effect of gallic acid extract from T. bellirica fruits on chronic mild stress-induced depression-like activity in mice model. The results showed that administration of T. bellirica ameliorated chronic mild stress-induced depression-like behavior by increased sucrose preference and decreased immobility time. Further, T. bellirica treatment has significantly regulated hyperactivity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by decreasing serum corticosterone and acetylcholinesterase. In addition, T. bellirica treatment has significantly modulated monoaminergic system by elevating neurotransmitters and inhibiting monoamino oxidases. Terminalia bellirica treatment has effectively antagonized the chronic mild stress-induced oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death as evidenced by mRNA or protein expression studies. Thus, the study concluded that T. bellirica produces an antidepressant-like activity by regulating hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, monoaminergic systems, and apoptotic cell death.

Giardiasis, one of the most common causes of diarrhoeal disease, is caused by gastrointestinal protozoal parasites of the genus Giardia. Metronidazole is the most commonly used drug to treat giardiasis. However, metronidazole resistance is increasingly common, making the development of new anti-giardial drugs a high priority. A panel of 11 compounds previously identified in T. ferdinandiana fruit extracts were investigated for the ability to inhibit G. duodenalis proliferation. Eight of the 11 compounds inhibited the growth of all three G. duodenalis strains. 2,3-Dihydroxyphenyl B-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid (DPGA) was the most potent anti-giardial compound, with IC50 values as low as 126 μM (38 μg/mL). Notably, DPGA inhibited a metronidazole-resistant G. duodenalis strain with similar activity as determined for the metronidazole-sensitive strains. Furthermore, the activity of DPGA was greatly potentiated when it was tested in combination with ascorbic acid, to approximately 17 μM (5 μg/mL) for the metronidazole-sensitive G. duodenalis strains and 40 μM (12 mg/mL) for the resistant strain. The T. ferdinandiana tannins (gallic acid and chebulic acid) were moderate inhibitors of G. duodenalis growth when tested in combination with ascorbic acid, although they had only low levels of activity when tested alone. All of the tested compounds (and their combinations with ascorbic acid) displayed low toxic effects and all compounds are conformed to Lipinski’s rules of 5 with few violations, indicating their potential as drug leads and chemotherapies for the treatment and prevention of giardiasis.

Among the diverse nanomaterials, gold nanoparticles (AuNps) are utilised for various therapeutic application due to the distinct physical, chemical properties and biocompatibility. Synthesis of gold nanoparticles using plants is the promising route. This method is low cost, eco-friendly and higher biological activities. In this present study, Gold nanoparticles were synthesised from fruit extract of Terminalia bellirica fruit extract. Their anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated against colorectal cancer cell line (HT29) and TNBS-induced zebrafish model. Highly stable tannin capped gold nanoparticles were synthesised from fruit extract broth of Terminalia bellirica rapidly. Structural and functional properties of the synthesised nanoparticles were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) equipped with energy-dispersive atomic X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). All the characterisation studies reveal highly stable, crystalline, phytochemicals, mainly tannin doped, spherical, 28 nm controlled sized gold nanoparticles. The molecular mechanism of anticancer activity was studied by determining cancer markers’ expression, which was studied using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Antioxidative enzymes’ status and apoptosis changes were also investigated. Synthesised nanoparticles brought a drastic reduction of all the tested cancer markers’ expression. Notable changes in antioxidative enzymes’ status and a good sign of apoptosis were observed in nanoparticles’ treatment. The anti-inflammatory activity was studied against TNBS-induced zebrafish model, which was confirmed by determining inflammatory markers’ expression TNF-α, iNOS (induced Nitric Oxide Synthase) and histopathological examination. Nanoparticles’ treatment recorded a drastic reduction of inflammatory markers’ expression. No marked sign of inflammation was also observed in histopathological analysis of the nanoparticles’ treatment group. The present study suggests the possible utilisation of T. bellirica-mediated gold nanoparticles as an effective therapeutic agent against a prolonged inflammatory disease that progressively develops into cancer.

In the present study, Terminalia bellirica methyl ester (TBME)/biodiesel was formed using potassium hydroxide as catalyst. Methyl ester fuel properties were resolved as per ASTM standard. The attribute of compression ignition (CI) engine such as combustion, performance, and released emission qualities of samples, such as diesel and TBME blends (B10, B20, B30, B50, and B100), were deliberated on a single-cylinder CI engine. By varying the load to 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, test data were measured. Using AVL DI GAS 444N (five gas) analyzer dissimilarity in the engine emissions were documented. The results of biodiesel test blends show the similar combustion and performance to diesel curves with minor decrement. However, CO and HC emission diminish when engine fueled with TBME test blends whereas NOx amplifies.

Kakadu Plum(Terminalia ferdinandiana) as a Sustainable Indigenous Agribusiness. In northern Australia, commercial use of plant products can provide Aboriginal people with important livelihood opportunities. Kakadu Plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana Exell.) is a species endemic to northern Australia with exceptional phytochemical properties and industry applications. Aboriginal people have a long history of customary use of many parts of this plant, and as scientific research provides evidence for commercial applications, it is under increasing demand. It has the highest level of ascorbic acid of any fruit in the world and also commercially important antioxidants. This paper reviews the unique characteristics of T. ferdinandiana fruit as a commercial plant product, the people and landscapes in which it grows, and the current state of knowledge for building a successful agribusiness based on these factors. It demonstrates the great potential T. ferdinandiana has as a sustainable Indigenous business and identifies the important research and development gaps that need to be addressed. These include improved understanding of taxonomy, floral biology, and drivers of variability in the properties in T. ferdinandiana leaves and fruit; better understanding of aspirations of Aboriginal suppliers for participation in the agribusiness supply chain; and specific supply chain models that suit Aboriginal suppliers of T. ferdinandiana to service a range of potential national and international markets.

Browse species are important sources of forage for livestock in Ethiopia, especially during the dry season, when the quality and quantity of green herbage is limited. However, browse species have anti-nutritional factors, such as polyphenols. This study evaluated the extent to which polyethylene glycol (PEG) can reduce the anti-nutritional effects of polyphenols whose extent is expected to vary depending on the species type and season on the in vitro fermentation of these plant samples. We selected ten browse species commonly used as livestock feed based on their tannin content, and sixty samples of the leaf and twig of these species were collected during the wet and dry seasons. The study was designed as 10 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with 10 browse species (Acacia nilotica, Crateva adonsonia, Dombeya torrida, Ekebergia capensis, Ensete ventricosum, Erythrina brucei, Maesa lanceolate, Sesbania sesban, Stereospermum kunthianum, and Terminalia laxiflora), 2 seasons (wet and dry) and 2 states of PEG (with and without PEG). The effects of tannin on the nutritive characteristics were also evaluated by adding PEG as a tannin-binding agent. The chemical composition and in vitro fermentation products of these samples differed significantly (p < 0.001) among browse species. Specifically, total extractable phenol (TEP) ranged from 26.3 to 250.3 g/kg, total extractable tannin (TET) from 22.8 to 210.9 g/kg, and condensed tannin (CT) from 11.1 to 141.3 g/kg, respectively. Season, species, and their interaction have a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the chemical composition and fermentation characteristics of most browse species. The addition of PEG increased gas production (GP), in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD), metabolizable energy (ME) concentration, dry matter degradability (DMD), and volatile fatty acids (VFA), on average, by 76.8%, 47.9%, 42.2%, 21.2%, and 20.2%, respectively. Secondary polyphenols (TEP, TET, CT, and SCT) were significantly (p < 0.001) and negatively correlated with GP, IVOMD, ME, and VFA. Preferable species namely E. ventricosum, S. sesban, M. lanceolata, E. capensis, and A. nilotica were selected for supplementation in terms of their chemical composition, IVOMD, and mitigating effects of PEG on anti-nutritional functions of their secondary compounds. In conclusion, PEG markedly reduced the anti-nutritional effects of polyphenols and improved the in vitro fermentation of browse species harvested in contrasting seasons.

Terminalia Linn, a genus of mostly medium or large trees in the family Combretaceae with about 250 species in the world, is distributed mainly in southern Asia, Himalayas, Madagascar, Australia, and the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa. Many species are used widely in many traditional medicinal systems, e.g., traditional Chinese medicine, Tibetan medicine, and Indian Ayurvedic medicine practices. So far, about 39 species have been phytochemically studied, which led to the identification of 368 compounds, including terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, simple phenolics and so on. Some of the isolates showed various bioactivities, in vitro or in vivo, such as antitumor, anti HIV-1, antifungal, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antioxidant, diarrhea and analgesic. This review covers research articles from 1934 to 2018, retrieved from SciFinder, Wikipedia, Google Scholar, Chinese Knowledge Network and Baidu Scholar by using “Terminalia” as the search term (“all fields”) with no specific time frame setting for the search. Thirty-nine important medicinal and edible Terminalia species were selected and summarized on their geographical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry and related pharmacological activities.

Arjunic acid (AA) is one of the major active component of Terminalia arjuna known for its health benefits. In the present study, we evaluated cardioprotective potential of Terminalia arjuna extract (TAE) and AA against cobalt chloride (CoCl2)–induced hypoxia damage and apoptosis in rat cardiomyocytes. TAE (50 μg/ml) and AA (8 μg/ml) significantly (p

Chronic diseases have been treated using the phytochemical concepts of ethnomedicinal plant-derived herbal products. Terminalia arjuna, a significant ethnomedicinal plant, was revisited and reconnoitred for antioxidant, free radical scavenging, and DNA nicking inhibiting activity under H2O2 conditions using 21 solvent extracts. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid, and nitrous oxide scavenging (%) were found to have a strong positive association and interaction (PCA 1 explains 84.54% variation) with ethanol bark (Etoh-AB) (Meoh-AF). TPC (144.67–1794 µg/mL GAE) and TFC (2.5–34 µM Fe(II)/g were highest in Etoh-AB. In a pattern of combined solvent extracts, Etoh-AB had the highest antioxidant capacity, accompanied by Etoh-AL ≥ Meoh-AB ≥ Dw-AF. With R2 = 0.94, the DNA nicking inhibition behaviour parameters relative front, relative quantity, band (%), and lane (%) formed a positive significant (p m/z 170.0208 g/mol) and Ellagic acid (m/z 302.0063 g/mol were present in high concentrations in solvent extracts. 0.48 mg was found to be the effective concentration for inhibiting relative DNA nicking. The current study is the first of its kind to show that steroid concentrations are higher in bark fractions of acetone, ethanol, and methanol. Furthermore, T. arjuna solvent extracts provide a wealth of information on phytochemical profiling, antioxidant ability, and DNA nicking inhibition, which may be useful for exploring the natural way and further research to develop a remedy against geriatric chronic disease. Despite the fact that ethanol is very close to methanol in terms of solvent toxicity, the current study identified it as the preferred solvent. Thus, the current research revisits previous studies and explores the potentiality of non-polar and polar aprotic and polar protic solvent systems, which lend credence to bioactive compounds that may be useful in isolating and formulating safe and cost effective herbal medicament for livestocks and aquaculture, and drugs for deoxygenerative human diseases, and can also be investigated further to instil environmental frugality.

This study was undertaken to examine changes in the content of pigments and accumulation of metals from vehicular pollution in selected species of roadside trees under vehicular pollution. A major arterial road with heavy vehicle emissions in the Kumasi Metropolis was designated as the polluted site, while Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Campus was designated as the control site. Four tree species (Terminalia catappa, Mangifera indica, Ficus platyphylla and Polyalthia longifolia) selected for the study were well distributed and abundant in the polluted and control sites. Photosynthetic pigments and levels of heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Cd and zinc) were assessed in their leaves. Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were determined by absorption spectrometry, while the metal accumulation index (MAI) was used to determine the total metal accumulation capacity of the tree species. We observed a reduction in photosynthetic pigments in the leaf samples from the polluted site. Ficus platyphylla had the maximum reduction in total chlorophyll (49.34%), whereas Terminalia catappa recorded the lowest reduction (33.88%). Similarly, the largest decrease (31.58%) of carotenoid content was found in Terminalia catappa trees and the lowest in Polyalthia longifolia (16.67%). The Polyalthia longifolia, Ficus platyphylla and Terminalia catappa leaf samples collected at the polluted site recorded a higher ratio of chlorophyll a/b. Heavy metal (Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd) accumulation in leaf samples was higher in the polluted site than in the control, as expected. The highest metal MAI value was recorded in Mangifera indica (5.35) followed by Polyalthia longifolia with 4.30. The findings from this study specifically demonstrate that air contamination induced by vehicles decreases the level of photosynthetic pigments in trees subjected to roadside emissions. It is clear that both chlorophyll a/b and chlorophyll/carotenoid ratios will act as very useful stress-level markers. Elevated heavy metal levels in the tree species along arterial roadsides indicate that they serve as heavy metals sink. The change in MAI resulting from different pollution burden is an indication that the removal capabilities of the tree species differ from each other. We therefore suggest M. indica and P. longifolia as potential species to be used in air pollution reduction plans in the city.

Mitigation of air pollution is the major global challenge in the current world. Quality of air is undergoing continuous deterioration due to industrial and urban development. The present study aims at the seasonal investigation of air pollution tolerance index (APTI) and anticipated performance index (API) of six commonly found plant species namely Ziziphus jujube (S1), Pithecellobium dulce (Sw.) DC (S2), Celosia argentea L. (S3), Ricinus communis L. (S4), Apluda mutica L. (S5) and Terminalia catappa L. (S6) growing along the industrial area (Chembur) of Mumbai. The air pollution tolerance indices were evaluated by using pH, ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll content, the relative water content in the fresh leaves of plant species growing along the industrial and non-industrial area of Mumbai. The API was determined on combining the APTI values of the plant species with their biological and socio-economic parameters. The APTI of all the industrial zone plant species was found to be higher than the non-industrial zone plant species in all the three seasons. The rise in the mean of the three season’s APTI of S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6 plant species from the polluted industrial zone over the less-polluted non-industrial zone was found to be 60.14, 76.59, 71.98, 82.30, 71.12, 65.52%, respectively. The higher API values obtained for the Pithecellobium dulce (Sw.) DC, Ricinus communis L. and Terminalia catappa L. plant species from polluted zone indicated higher air pollution tolerance and hence are recommended for green belt expansion in the Chembur industrial area. Terminalia catappa L. is an evergreen plant which can be planted in large number to develop green zone throughout the year around the Chembur industrial area. Similar studies can be performed globally to increase green zones around any industrial or residential area which will provide healthy living for the next generations on the earth.

In Mozambique, charcoal processes can result in several disturbances in natural forests. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of four carbonization methodologies on the anatomical characteristics and near infrared spectra of Spirostachys africana, Terminalia sp. and Colophospermum mopane, to contribute with information for an identification database for charcoal control. The carbonization was done in an electric muffle furnace with different final temperature (400/450 °C) and total time (40 min/2 h, 4 h, 6 h). The quantitative changes in anatomy of charcoal samples was not directly related to carbonization programs with respect to particular features of each species. Species are best distinguished for the NIR spectra in the region from 4000 to 5000 cm−1. In the analysis by species, charcoal produced at 450 °C—4 h were more distinct in comparison to other programs that resulted in mixed samples. Final temperature influenced more than total process time in species distinction and the use of NIR is reinforced as a potential tool to discriminate species submitted to different carbonization processes. These traits can be applied in species discrimination based on databases of wood anatomical descriptions and charcoal NIR spectra.

A precise and cost-efficient diagnostic technique for detecting decay and other structural defects in living trees is indispensable for the risk assessment and conservation of urban and forest trees. A study was carried out to detect the location and extent of decay and hollows (or cavities) in almond trees (Terminalia catappa L. Roxb.) using the four-point electrical resistivity method. Electrical resistivity measurements (ERm) of randomly selected living almond trees were taken using an earth resistivity meter, four probes and a modified form of Schlumberger electrode configuration. The ERm were used to obtain resistivity profiles (RP) of the trees. The RP of freshly cut healthy, decayed and hollowed trees were also obtained. A laboratory experiment was set up to replicate the RP of healthy, decayed and hollowed trees. Wood decay and cavities in trees were detected through RP matching. In comparison to healthy trees, wood decay and cavities in tree stems were detected with relatively sharp decrease and increase in electrical resistivity values, respectively. The extent of the resistivity anomalies corresponds to the extent of wood decay and cavities in trees. This method is applicable to early detection of decay and cavities in hardwood trees.

Terminalia trees are being over exploited because of their medicinal and economical importance leading to loss of valuable genetic resources. The study included morphological variation and characterization of genetic diversity at interspecific level. Genus Terminalia is a complex group having many problems associated with taxonomic identification. Morphologically T. arjuna can be distinguished from other species having winged fruits whereas the fruits of T. catappa are elliptical and tomentose. Fruits of T. chebula are provided with ribs while fruits of T. bellerica are without ribs. Thus different species of Terminalia can be distinguished by characteristic of fruits and sometimes by characteristic of leaves. For the first time comprehensive study was done for estimation and analysis of genetic variation through random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers. A total of 12 polymorphic primers (6 RAPD and 6 ISSR) produced 80 polymorphic bands with an average of 7.5 bands per primer. The average polymorphism was 87.97% and five primers were reported to produce 100% polymorphism. Dendrogram based on RAPD and ISSR data grouped four Terminalia species in two distinct clusters. Cluster-I comprised 2 species viz. T. arjuna, T. chebula, while cluster-II comprised two species T. bellerica and T. catappa. Clustering of species was altercating with previous morphological studies.

Quorum sensing, the microbial communication system, is gaining importance as a therapeutic target against pathogens. The two key reasons for the rising demand of quorum sensing (QS) inhibitory molecules are low selective pressure to develop resistance by pathogens and possibility of more species-specific effects. Due to complex interactions in a unique niche of live plant tissues, endophytes, as a survival mechanism, potentially produce various bioactive compounds such as QS inhibitors. We report the isolation of an endophytic fungus Kwoniella sp. PY016 from the medicinal plant "Bahera" (Terminalia bellirica), which exhibits substantial quorum sensing inhibition and anti-biofilm activities against the standard test organism, Chromobacterium violaceum. Sugar, sugar alcohol, carboxylic acid, lipid, and phenolic classes of metabolites (predominantly xylitol) are responsible components of the metabolome for the desired bioactivity. A judicious combination of single-factor-at-a-time strategy and artificial neural network modeling combined with genetic algorithm was employed for the selection and optimization of the critical process and medium parameters. Through this newly adopted hybrid model-based optimization, the quorum sensing inhibitory activity of the endophytic metabolome was increased by ~ 30%. This is the first report on optimization of QS inhibitory activity from any fungal endophyte using such a hybrid advanced approach.

In this study, polysaccharide of Terminalia catappa L. was extracted and characterized using UV–Vis spectroscopy and FTIR spectroscopy. The polysaccharide was tested for its antibacterial activity, swarming motility, antibiofilm activity, anticancer activity and antioxidant activity. Further, the polysaccharide was subjected for carboxymethylation and chelated using Tri Sodium Tri Meta phosphate to form nanocarriers. The nanocarriers were loaded with curcumin and were characterized using FTIR, SEM, EDAX, TEM and AFM. The curcumin nanocarriers were evaluated for its drug encapsulation efficiency, drug release, invitro anticancer activity and also subjected for cellular uptake studies. The polysaccharide was found to be producing a stable and non hemotoxic nanocarrier, which could encapsulate drug and release drug efficiently.

Terminalia laxiflora Engl. & Diels. is an important indigenous and multi-purpose species in Ethiopia. However threatened due to low germination and its storage behavior is unknown. In this study, we aimed to (1) test pretreatments for breaking the dormancy of T. laxiflora seed and (2) determine its storage behavior. Seeds were subjected to four pretreatments such as soaking, scarification, high-temperature, and control. Experiments were done before storage and after 2 years of dry storage at cold temperature (− 10 °C) based on randomized design with four replicates. The first round of experimental results showed that T. laxiflora seeds with high temperature treatments at 78 °C for 10 min showed significantly higher germination percentage (80%). In the second round experiment, high-temperature treatment at 78 °C for 15 min, cold water soaking, high-temperature treatment at 78 °C for 10 min, hot water soaking, and high-temperature treatment at 78 °C for 5 min showed significantly higher germination percentage from the remaining treatments (75, 64, 58, 56, and 53%, respectively). To break the dormancy of T. laxiflora seed and attain good germination result, seeds should be pretreated with high-temperature at 78 °C for 10 min to test the initial germination before storage and should be pretreated with high-temperature (at 78 °C for 15, 10, or 5 min), soaked in cold, or hot water for 24 h to monitor the germination after storage. The two experiments show that T. laxiflora produces orthodox seed.

The medicinal plant, Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. is widely used in the traditional Indian system of medicine like Ayurveda for centuries in the treatment of various ailments owing to it’s rejuvenating as well as health promoting effects. The present study evaluates protective role of aqueous acetone extract of T. bellirica fruits (AATB) against CCl4 induced liver toxicity in animal model. The liver damage was assessed by liver function markers including ALT, AST, ALP, GGT, LDH, total bilirubin, total protein, albumin, globulin and albumin-globulin ratio. The levels of MDA, ROS, and NO along with the tissue antioxidants were evaluated to assess hepatic oxidative stress and level of lipid peroxidation. Treatment with AATB prior to the exposure of CCl4 significantly reduced the damage when compared to the control rats. The outcome of the present study advocates the traditional use of the plant as ethnic food and health tonic.

Nutritional composition of the kernels of two types of Pindan walnut (Terminalia cunninghamii), a native nut consumed traditionally by Australian Indigenous peoples, is reported for the first time. Results showed that Pindan walnut kernels contained high levels of fat, protein and ash, approximately 50, 30 and 5% fresh basis, respectively. The levels of minerals in the kernels were much higher than common walnuts and macadamia nuts, especially those of phosphorus, magnesium and zinc. The high amounts of polyphenols in the kernels provided strong hydrophilic antioxidant capacities, of up to 2004 mg Trolox equivalents/100 g fresh basis using the hydrophilic oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay. Both free polyphenol content and hydrophilic antioxidant capacities of the kernels were higher than those of macadamia nuts, although the lipophilic oxygen radical absorbance capacity was lower. These preliminary studies indicate high potential for wider use of the Pindan walnut as a novel, nutritious and health-promoting food.

This study reports the investigation into pectin present in Terminalia ferdinandiana—a native Australian fruit utilised in dietary supplement industry. Citric acid extraction was carried out to extract pectin from two commercially available T. ferdinandiana products—frozen puree and freeze-dried puree powder. The yields of the extracted pectin were measured at various pHs (2.0, 3.0 and 4.0) and times (30, 60 and 120 min) at 75 °C. Pectin yield ranged between 4.8 and 21%. Freeze-dried powder had a higher pectin yield compared to puree. Extraction at pH 3 for 120 min resulted in the highest yield from both puree (15%) and powder (21%). T. ferdinandiana pectins were found to have low methoxyl content with degree of esterification of 35.07 and 34.74% for puree and powder, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed that the extracts were pectin.

The development of neuroprotective drugs through eco-friendly production routes is a major challenge for current pharmacology. The present study was carried out to synthesize gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) through biogenic route using ethanolic bark extract of Terminalia arjuna, a plant of high interest in Asian traditional medicine, and to evaluate its neuroprotective effects. The synthesized AuNPs were characterized by UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, XRD, FESEM, EDX, HRTEM, DLS, and zeta potential analyses. UV-Vis spectroscopy showed a characteristics SPR absorption band at 536 nm specific for AuNPs. XRD, TEM, and FESEM analyses revealed the formation of face-centered cubic crystalline, spherical and triangular shaped AuNPs, with size ranging between 20 and 50 nm. DLS and ZP analysis illustrated that the average size of AuNPs was 30 nm, which was found to be stable at 45 mv. The neuroprotective potential of AuNPs was evaluated by assessing its antioxidant, cholinesterase inhibitory, and antiamyloidogenic activities. AuNPs showed dose-dependant inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase with IC50 value of 4.25 ± 0.02 and 5.05 ± 0.02 μg/ml, respectively. In vitro antioxidant assays illustrated that AuNPs exhibited the highest reducing power and DPPH radical scavenging activity. In addition, AuNPs also efficiently suppressed the fibrillation of Aβ and destabilized the preformed mature fibrils. Results of toxicity studies in PBMC and adult zebra fish illustrated that AuNPs are non-toxic and biocompatible. Overall, our results highlighted the AuNPs promising potential in terms of antioxidant, anticholinesterase, antiamyloidogenic effects, and non-lethality allowing us to propose these nanomaterials as a suitable candidate for the development of drugs helpful in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease.

Ficus (Moraceae) is a keystone group in tropical and subtropical forests with remarkable diversity of species and taxonomical challenges as a consequence of fig–pollinator coevolution. Ficus subsect. Frutescentiae includes about 30 species that are predominantly shrubs or small trees with Terminalia branching. Many of these species are difficult to delimit morphologically, and the group includes a tangle of uncertain taxa and incorrectly applied names. We conducted a phylogenetic analysis with internal and external transcribed spacer data (ITS and ETS) and data from 18 polymorphic microsatellite loci to evaluate the species status of the most perplexing members of this subsection. The results confirm the monophyly of subsect. Frutescentiae, with F. pedunculosa as sister to the rest. The F. erecta complex comprises approximately 17 taxa: F. erecta, F. abelii, F. boninsimae, F. nishimurae, F. iidaiana, F. gasparriniana var. laceratifolia, F. gasparriniana var. viridescens, F. pyriformis, F. stenophylla, F. fusuiensis, F. fengkaiensis, F. sinociliata, F. tannoensis, F. vaccinioides, F. formosana, F. pandurata, and F. periptera. The last five of these were supported as good species, while the others were not well supported by the present evidence. Evidence also supported the status of the non-F. erecta complex species including. F. pedunculosa, F. ischnopoda, F. heteromorpha, and F. variolosa. Ficus filicauda and F. neriifolia are possibly conspecific. The species status of F. potingensis should be restored and it should be treated as a member of section Eriosycea. Identification of the remaining taxa (F. gasparriniana var. esquirolii, F. ruyuanensis, F. daimingshanensis, F. chapaensis, F. changii, F. trivia, and F. tuphapensis) and their relationships to the F. erecta complex were not clarified. As a whole, only ten species in this subsection are confirmed, one is excluded, one is synonymous, and the others are either unresolved or short of samples. There appears to be a consistent genetic background among these unresolved groups, which suggests that repeated hybridization (as a result of pollinator host shifts) has filled up the interspecific gaps during the fig–pollinator coevolution process.

In the present study, an endophytic fungal strain was isolated from its non-Taxus host plant Terminalia arjuna and identified as Alternaria brassicicola based on its morphological characteristics and internal transcribed spacer sequence analysis. This fungus was grown in potato dextrose broth and analyzed for the presence of taxol by using chromatographic and spectrometric techniques. The ethyl acetate extract of A.brassicicola was subjected to column chromatography. Among the different fractions, the fraction 7 showed positive to taxol, which was further confirmed by UV absorption, HPLC, FTIR spectra and LC–ESI–MS by comparing with the authentic taxol (Paclitaxel). The peaks of fraction 7 obtained by UV spectroscopy, FTIR and HPLC analysis were quite similar to that of standard taxol confirming the presence of taxol. A parent ion peak of m/z 854.95 was observed in the LC–ESI–MS spectrum which was similar to paclitaxel with reported m/z of 854 [M+H]+ ion. A. brassicicola produced about 140.8 μg/l taxol as quantified through HPLC. Present study results suggest that the endophytic fungus A.brassicicola serves as a potential source for the production of taxol isolated from non-Taxus plant.

Carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems plays an important role for climate change regulation. Policy makers make use of growth models for carbon estimations of the large scale projects in designing regulation. This study revealed the aboveground carbon sequestration potentials and established allometric growth models of four species in agroforestry. Based on the results, the aboveground carbon storages of Morinda tinctoria Roxb., Terminalia oliveri Brandis., Rhus paniculata Wall. and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. were 6.88, 6.59, 4.34 and 3.53 kg C tree−1, respectively. In comparison between two types of agroforestry, a mixture of M. tinctoria and E. officinalis had a higher carbon sequestration potential (1331 kg C ha−1) than a mixture of R. paniculata and T. oliveri (1151.40 kg C ha−1). A hyperbolic growth model and a basic quadratic model were the best-fit models for R. paniculata and E. officinalis, respectively, while a basic logarithmic model was the best fit for both M. tinctoria and T. oliveri. This study highlighted that both Akaike Information Criterion, Furnival index and coefficient of determination should be taken into consideration for model selection, as opposed to only considering the coefficient of determination. The study also pointed out that a mixture of M. tinctoria and T. oliveri should be considered as a tentative model for agroforestry plantations to enhance the carbon storage in semi-arid area in the future.

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease which is increasing, cannot be cured and so must be suffered for whole life. In recent years, research on herbal medicines for the treatment of diabetes has been increasing. Terminalia species have been used as traditional medicines to treat several diseases including diabetic diseases for a great many years. The aim of this study is to evaluate the anti-oxidant and antidiabetic activities of methanol extracts of the trunk-bark of three Terminalia species, T. alata, T. belirica and T. corticosa Pierre ex Laness. The anti-oxidant activity was determined by DPPH radical scavenging and the antidiabetic activity was determined by digestive enzymes inhibition and lowering fasting blood glucose in diabetic rats. The flavonoids and polyphenol contents were also determined by spectroscopic methods. The results indicated that the three trunk-bark extracts of the investigated plants possessed relatively high anti-oxidant activity with IC50 values of 0.24 mg/ml for T. alata, 1.02 mg/ml for T. belirica and 0.25 mg/ml for T. corticosa and 0.24 mg/ml for the positive control of L-ascorbic acid. In addition, these extracts also exhibited inhibitory activity on α-amylase and α-glucosidase and lowered fasting blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats but without inducing body weight loss comparing to acarbose. Amongst the extracts, the highest effect on lowering in diabetic rats was found in the extract of T. belirica followed by T. corticosa and T. alata. However, the extracts did not produce any hypoglycemic effect in normal rats at a dose up to 200 mg/kg body weight. The results suggest that the methanol extracts of the investigated plants may prove to be useful in treating type 2 diabetes.

Background Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) is a traditional herbal medicine that is widely used in the treatment of diabetes, immunodeficiency diseases, and stomach ulcer in Asia. However, the anti-amnesic effect of T. chebula has not yet been investigated. The present study was designed to determine whether T. chebula extract (TCE) alleviates amnesia induced by scopolamine in mice. We also investigated possible mechanisms associated with cholinergic system and anti-oxidant effects. Methods TCE (100 or 200 mg/kg) was orally administered to mice for fourteen days (days 1–14), and scopolamine was intraperitoneally injected to induce memory impairment for seven days (days 8–14). Learning and memory status were evaluated using the Morris water maze. Hippocampal levels of acetylcholine (ACh), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) were measured ex vivo. Levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in the hippocampus were also examined. Results In the Morris water maze task, TCE treatment reversed scopolamine-induced learning and memory deficits in acquisition and retention. TCE reduced hippocampal AChE activities and increased ChAT and ACh levels in the scopolamine-induced model. Moreover, TCE treatment suppressed scopolamine-induced oxidative damage by ameliorating the increased levels of ROS, NO, and MDA. Conclusion These findings suggest that TCE exerts potent anti-amnesic effects via cholinergic modulation and anti-oxidant activity, thus providing evidence for its potential as a cognitive enhancer for amnesia. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-018-2212-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Terminalia arjuna (Ta) bark contains various natural antioxidants and has been used to protect animal cells against oxidative stress. In the present study, we have examined alleviating effects of Ta bark aqueous extract against Ni toxicity in rice (Oryza sativa L.). When rice seedlings were raised for 8 days in hydroponics in Yoshida nutrient medium containing 200 μM NiSO4, a decline in height, reduced biomass, increased Ni uptake, loss of root plasma membrane integrity, increase in the level of O2˙−, H2O2 and ˙OH, increased lipid peroxidation, decline in photosynthetic pigments, increase in the level of antioxidative enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase and alterations in their isoenzyme profile patterns were observed. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed damage to chloroplasts marked by disorganised enlarged starch granules and disrupted thylakoids under Ni toxicity. Exogenously adding Ta bark extract (3.2 mg ml−1) to the growth medium considerably alleviated Ni toxicity in the seedlings by reducing Ni uptake, suppressing generation of reactive oxygen species, reducing lipid peroxidation, restoring level of photosynthesis pigments and ultrastructure of chloroplasts, and restoring levels of antioxidative enzymes. Results suggest that Ta bark extract considerably alleviates Ni toxicity in rice seedlings by preventing Ni uptake and reducing oxidative stress in the seedlings.

Increasing demand for eco-friendly botanical piscicides and pesticides as replacements for harmful synthetic chemicals has led to investigation of new sources of plant materials. Stem bark of Terminalia arjuna, which has been used as a popular folk medicine since ancient time, was examined for its piscicidal activity. This study aims to determine toxicity of ethanol extract of T. arjuna bark on fresh water stinging catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), along with evaluation of changes in hematological parameters of the fishes exposed to a lethal concentration. The percent mortality of fishes varied significantly in response to concentrations of the extract and exposure times (between exposure time F = 36.57, p < 0.001; between concentrations F = 39.93, p < 0.001). The lethal concentrations (LC50) of ethanol extract were found to be 12.7, 8.94, 5.63 and 4.71 mg/l for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively. During acute toxicity test, blood samples of treatment fishes showed significant decreases in the red blood cells count, hematocrit content, hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration and plasma protein level when compared to those of the control group, while there were significant increases in the mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, white blood cells count and plasma glucose concentration. These results suggest that T. arjuna bark extract could be considered as a potent piscicide due to its toxic effect on fish, particularly fish hematology.

Urolithiasis is a multifactorial disease and remains a public health problem around the world. Of all types of renal stones, calcium oxalate (CaOx) is the most common composition formed in the urinary system of the patients with urolithiasis. The present study is aimed at evaluating the antiurolithiatic properties of the Tris-Cl extract (TE) of Terminalia arjuna (T. arjuna). The antilithiatic activity of TE of T. arjuna was investigated on nucleation, aggregation, and growth of the CaOx crystals, as well as its protective potency was tested on oxalate-induced cell injury of NRK-52E renal epithelial cells. Also, in vitro antioxidant activity of TE T. arjuna bark was also determined. The TE of T. arjuna exhibited a concentration-dependent inhibition of nucleation and growth of CaOx crystals. Inhibition of aggregation of CaOx crystals remains constant. When NRK-52E cells were injured by exposure to oxalate for 48 h, the TE prevented the cells from injury and CaOx crystal adherence resulting in increased cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. The TE also scavenged the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals with an IC50 at 51.72 µg/mL. The results indicated that T. arjuna is a potential candidate for phytotherapy against urolithiasis as it attains the ability to inhibit CaOx crystallization and scavenge DPPH free radicals in vitro along with a cytoprotective role.

The present paper describes various challenges and their economic solutions for genome based analytical methods tested for medicinally important phenolic rich bark of Terminalia species. The study is focused on homogenous PCR amplification from heterogeneous quality DNA obtained from four Terminalia species due to the presence of high phenolics and hard nature of stem bark tissue. Though no direct correlation was obtained between phenolic content and conventional quality parameters of the DNA, but its minimal amount was found to be inhibitory for PCR. The comprehensive approach outlined here suggests a customized solution to improve the quality and PCR amplifiability of the DNA contaminated with secondary metabolites like phenolics. The methodology which is described here can be applied for molecular standardization of the original botanical material, establishment of their genomic identity and DNA based analysis of the hard and phenolic rich tissue.

The present study evaluated the cardioprotective effects of Terminalia arjuna on classical and immuno-inflammatory markers in coronary artery disease (CAD) as an adjuvant therapy. One hundred sixteen patients with stable CAD were administered placebo/T. arjuna (500 mg twice a day) along with medications in a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. To understand the specificity and efficacy of T. arjuna, we evaluated its effect through microarray and in silico analysis in few representative samples. Data was further validated via real-time PCR (n = 50) each at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months, respectively. rIL-18 cytokine was used to induce inflammation in vitro to compare its effects with atorvastatin. T. arjuna significantly down-regulated TG, VLDL-C, and immuno-inflammatory markers in stable CAD versus placebo-treated subjects. Microarray and pathway analysis of a few samples from T. arjuna/placebo-treated groups and real-time PCR validation further confirmed our observations. Our data demonstrate the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of T. arjuna that may attenuate ongoing inflammation and immune imbalance in medicated CAD subjects.

Many South African plants are used as both foods and traditional medicines for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. A survey of edible plants for natural preservative/functional food potential was undertaken on native South African plants with a history of medicinal usage. Sixty six extracts from 29 plant species were investigated for the ability to inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi associated with food spoilage and food poisoning. Of these, 27 of the 29 plant species tested (93.1 %) inhibited the growth of at least one of the Gram-negative bacteria tested, compared with 23 of the 29 (79.3 %) plants tested inhibiting the growth of at least one Gram-positive bacterium, and seven of the 29 (24.1 %) plants tested inhibiting the growth of at least one fungal species. In general, the methanol plant extracts were better antimicrobial agents than the water extracts, as determined by the disc diffusion minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) method. Syzygium cordatum, Terminalia pruinoides and Terminalia sericea extracts were particularly effective, with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and MIC values generally significantly below 1000 μg/ml. Extracts of these plants were generally more potent antimicrobial agents than the control antibiotics, with significantly lower MIC values. All extracts exhibiting bacterial and fungal inhibitory activity were also shown to be non-toxic, or of low toxicity in the Artemia nauplii bioassay. The low toxicity of these extracts and their inhibitory bioactivity against bacteria and fungi associated with food spoilage/poisoning indicate their potential as natural food preservatives.

In the present study, microwave-assisted, optimized, instant, Terminalia bellirica fruit extract-mediated green synthesis of colloidal silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has been reported. The synthesized AgNPs were characterized by UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, Zetasizer, FESEM, EDX and XRD. The characteristic surface plasmon peak of reaction mixture at 406 nm confirmed the synthesis of AgNPs. The FTIR studies confirmed phytoconstituents were responsible for the synthesis and stability of AgNPs. The FESEM, EDX and XRD analysis revealed the presence of spherical silver nanoparticles of mean diameter ≤20.6 nm with face-centered cubic crystalline structure. These AgNPs showed notable catalytic activity in reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol in the presence of NaBH4. The synthesized AgNPs showed potential antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against bacterial pathogens like Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Thus, these synthesized AgNPs can open avenues for the development of AgNP-based efficient nanocatalyst and potent nanomedicine in future. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13205-016-0589-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background: The fruit of the Terminalia chebula tree has been widely used for the treatment of various disorders. Its anti-diabetic, anti-mutagenic, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and anti-viral effects have been studied. Dental plaque bacteria (DPB) are intimately associated with gingivitis and periodontitis. In the quest for materials that will prove useful in the treatment and prevention of periodontal disease, we investigated the preventive effects of an ethanol extract of Terminalia chebula (EETC) on DPB-induced inflammation and bone resorption. Methods: The anti-bacterial effect of EETC was analyzed using the disc diffusion method. The anti-inflammatory effect of EETC was determined by molecular biological analysis of the DPB-mediated culture cells. Prevention of osteoclastic bone resorption by EETC was explored using osteoclast formation and pit formation assays. Results: EETC suppressed the growth of oral bacteria and reduced the induction of inflammatory cytokines and proteases, abolishing the expression of PGE2 and COX-2 and inhibiting matrix damage. By stimulating the DPB-derived lipopolysaccharides, EETC inhibited both osteoclast formation in osteoclast precursors and RANKL expression in osteoblasts, thereby contributing to the prevention of bone resorption. Conclusions: EETC may be a beneficial supplement to help prevent DPB-mediated periodontal disease.

The present study described an improved and reproducible in vitro regeneration system for Terminalia arjuna using nodal segment explants obtained from a mature plant. Shoot tips excised from in vitro proliferated shoots were encapsulated in 3 % sodium alginate and 100 mM CaCl2[Symbol: see text]2H2O for the development of synthetic seeds which may be applicable in short-term storage and germplasm exchange of elite genotype. Shoot multiplication was significantly influenced by a number of factors, namely types and concentrations of plant growth regulators, medium composition, repeated transfer of mother explants, subculturing of in vitro regenerated shoot clumps, agar concentrations, and temperature. Maximum numbers of shoots (16.50 ± 3.67) were observed on modified Murashige and Skoog (MMS) medium containing 0.5 mg l(-1) of benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 0.1 mg l(-1) of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). To shortening the regeneration pathway, rooting of micropropagated shoots under in vitro condition was excluded and an experiment on ex vitro rooting was conducted and it was observed that the highest percentage of shoots rooted ex vitro when treated with indole-3-butyric acid (IBA, 250 mg l(-1)) + 2-naphthoxy acetic acid (NOA, 250 mg l(-1)) for 5 min. The well-developed ex vitro rooted shoots were acclimatized successfully in soilrite under greenhouse conditions with 80 % survival of plants. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis confirmed that all the regenerated plants were genetically identical to the mother plant, suggesting the absence of detectable genetic variation in the regenerated plantlets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on synthetic seed production as well as ex vitro rooting and genetic fidelity assessment of micropropagated shoots of T. arjuna.