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Soil erosion is a major concern for the agricultural production as it leads to topsoil losses and decreased soil fertility, especially in highland regions. Walungu’s Chisheke watershed supports the staple food and industrial tea production, which are the basis for the food and income security in the region. The Chisheke watershed’s soil loss estimate is, therefore, vital for its sustainable management to maximize benefit to farmers and the region economy which is heavily dependent on tea products and sub-products’ export. To facilitate the implementation of an erosion management plan, this study estimated soil losses in the Chisheke watershed using the Revised Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Besides, it assessed the land-use and land cover change impacts on the soil erosion as well as the farmer's perception on the currently experienced watershed soil erosion. Results showed that soil losses varied from 0 to 400 t ha−1 yr−1, with an average of 24 t ha−1 yr−1. The soil loss rates depended on the land-use and land cover changes. The highest soil losses were those from settlements (60 t ha−1 yr−1) and bare soils (45 t ha−1 yr−1) while agriculture and tea plantation (8.5 t ha−1 yr−1) and forest (6.5 t ha−1 yr−1) recorded lower soil losses. However, extreme soil erosive risks were observed in steep slope agricultural lands. Farmers acknowledged the soil erosion as a major concern in their area and used the soil and water conservation practices to mitigate its negative effects. The predominant soil and water conservation practices included the manure (72%), compost (57%) and green manure (45%) applications as well as the promotion of mashes and wetlands for vegetable crop production. The soil erosion maps provided in this study are valuable resources to effectively implement sustainable soil erosion management strategies in the Chisheke watershed and other areas with similar agro-ecological conditions.

In South-Kivu province, cattle farming is an integral component of farmers’ livelihoods and one of the few income-generating opportunities for smallholders. However, very few studies have been conducted to characterize smallholders’ cattle production systems. This study documents cattle production systems to better understand their current situation, constraints they face and opportunities they offer. For that purpose, an investigation was conducted based on a structured survey questionnaire and participatory interviews with 863 farmers in South-Kivu province. Collected data were analysed using factorial analysis of mixed data and clustering techniques. The results revealed three types of smallholder cattle farms differing mainly in their herds’ sizes and landholding. The first category is the most common and includes farmers raising small herds (6.3 ± 6.7 cattle) of local breeds in herding system (in this work, “herding system” refers to a rearing system for which the farmer drives and stays with his animals on pastures and fallow land during the day) and grazing fodder in community pastures, fallow lands and roadside grasses, while land constitutes a scarce resource. In the second category, some farmers have small tracts of land ( 5 ha), but all have medium-size herds (45.1 ± 19.4 cattle) made up of local breeds, which they rear in herding system. They also exploit community pastures, fallow land and roadside fodder for animal feeding. The third and last category includes farmers with large cattle herds (78.1 ± 28.1 cattle) of local, crossbred and exotic breeds raised free range in the fenced paddocks on vast areas of land (> 5 ha) found in high-altitude regions. However, while being different according to the above-considered characteristics, the three categories of cattle farming remain extensive pastoral farms dominated by male farmers. Agriculture and/or animal husbandry are their main source of income while their livestock are also composed of goats and poultry, beside cattle. Still, the three farming groups require more inputs and improvement strategies for increased productivity in the challenging environment characterized by low land accessibility and high demand for milk and meat. Fodder cultivation and crop-livestock integration through agro-ecological systems as well as access to credit and extension services are the proposed strategies for the improvement of this economic sector.