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To study the ostrich (Struthio camelus) foot sole with an irregular surface and papillae, we designed a multi-angle device to measure its friction properties on sand. The observed macro- and micro-structures of the ostrich foot sole intensified friction by tightly gripping sand particles. The sliding friction of the ostrich foot on a single-layer sand board increased with the enlarging particle size. A loose sand all-direction test showed that the coefficient of friction (COF) of the ostrich foot sole was higher than that of the nonpapillary foot. The COF of the ostrich foot sole minimized to 0.30 at 0° and maximized to 0.61 at 180°, and that of the nonpapillary foot minimized to 0.23 at 300° and maximized to 0.54 at 180°, suggesting the ostrich papillae exerted a friction effect. Significant differences in COF were observed among the ranges 10°-40°, 90° and 120°-350°, indicating the papillae can steadily enhance the frictional performance. This study provides an important theoretical basis for the design of frictional robots for deep space exploration and other soft media.

Lawsonia intracellularis is the causative agent of proliferative enteropathy (PE) in pigs, a disease of economic importance worldwide. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of L. intracellularis in ostriches using a sensitive and specific nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR). A total number of 112 fecal samples (64 healthy, 48 diarrheic) were collected from 11 ostrich farms located in four provinces in Iran (Semnan, Tehran, Gilan, Yazd). The results showed the presence of L. intracellularis in three diarrheic and four apparently healthy birds. The frequency of positive results was the same in both groups (6.25% healthy vs. 6.25% diarrheic). Although the results of this study did not reveal any relationship between this organism and diarrhea (P > 0.05), the molecular detection of L. intracellularis on a farm where birds were suffering from the typical clinical symptoms of PE highlights the need for evaluation of PE in ratites.

Background Libyostrongylus douglassii, Libyostrongylus dentatus and Libyostrongylus magnus are nematodes that infect ostriches. The first species has been identified in ostriches from Africa, Europe, Americas and Oceania. Although the natural range of ostriches is Africa, L. dentatus was first described in birds from the USA and later identified in Brazil, where co-infections with L. douglassii have been commonly reported. Libyostrongylus magnus is known from the original description only. There are a few reports on infections with L. douglassii in ostriches from Africa and all farmed birds examined are from the southern region of the continent. The aim of this report was to verify Libyostrongylus spp. infections in wild ostriches from Ethiopia. Fecal samples from ostriches, Struthio molybdophanes, were collected and submitted to coproculture. Infective larvae were identified to the species level based on general morphology and morphometry. In addition, phylogenetic analysis of the first and second internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and ITS2) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA was performed. Results Infective larvae from Ethiopian ostriches had the morphological characteristics of L. dentatus. Confidence interval estimate for sheath tail length from Ethiopian Libyostrongylus sp. isolates overlapped one for Brazilian L. dentatus. Neighbor-joining and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic trees based on sequences of the ITS1 and ITS2 regions revealed that the Ethiopian samples belong to the L. dentatus species clade. Monospecific infections with L. dentatus were confirmed in Ethiopian wild ostriches, opposed to the co-infections typically found in the Americas. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first record of L. dentatus from African ostriches, the region from which this parasite originated.

H9N2 subtype avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have been isolated from various species of wild birds and domestic poultry in the world, and occasionally transmitted to humans. Although H9N2 AIVs are seldom isolated from ostriches, seven such strains were isolated from sick ostriches in China between 2013 and 2014. Sequence analysis showed several amino acid changes relating to viral adaptation in mammals were identified. The phylogenetic analyses indicated that these isolates were quadruple reassortant viruses, which are different from the early ostrich isolates from South Africa or Israel. Most of the ostrich virus carried a human-type receptor-binding property. The chicken experiments showed the ostrich strains displayed low pathogenicity, while they could cause mild to severe symptoms in chicken. Theses strains could efficiently transmit among chickens, and one strain showed higher transmissibility. The virus could not kill mice, and merely replicated in the lung of mice. The ostrich strains could not efficiently transmit between guinea pigs in the direct contact model. These results suggested we should pay attention to the interface between ostrich and other domestic fowl, and keep an eye on this population when monitoring of influenza virus.

This study, facilitated by the use of immunohistochemistry, indicated the presence of taste buds in Dromaius novaehollandiae but not in Struthio camelus. Seen at the light microscope level, the taste buds consisted of follicular cells and receptor cells. The follicular cells were located at the periphery of the taste bud, essentially encapsulating the receptor cells. Two morphologically distinct receptor cells were identified. Immunohistochemical labelling for neurofilament identified gustatory nerves within the taste bud. The distribution of taste buds in D. novaehollandiae matched strategic locations in the oropharynx along which food could be sampled, according to the feeding method described for these birds. Future feeding studies would be necessary in D. novaehollandiae to determine the importance of taste discrimination in their diet. This study represents the first confirmed report of a sense of taste in any ratite species.

Ten blue-neck male ostriches (Struthio camelus) were fed Prosopis farcta beans throughout a 30-day experiment. Blood samples were collected from ostriches on days 0 and 30 to measure levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, triglyceride, total serum protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, calcium, inorganic phosphorus, the activity of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and γ-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT). From days 0 to 30, HDL cholesterol, total protein, and globulins levels increased significantly whereas LDL cholesterol, inorganic phosphorus, and γ-GT activity decreased significantly.

The aim of this study was to determine microsatellite polymorphism in ostriches and using it in creation the genetic map of the ostrich. The polymorphism analysis covered 30 microsatellite markers characteristic of ostrich, for the CAU (China Agricultural University) group. The material consisted of 150 ostriches (Struthio camelus). The 30 microsatellite loci was examined and a total of 343 alleles was identified. The number of alleles at a single locus ranged from 5 at locus CAU78 to 34 at locus CAU85. The values for the observed heterozygosity H(o) ranged from 0.467 (locus CAU78) to 0.993 (locus CAU16), whereas for the expected heterozygosity H(e)--from 0.510 (locus CAU78) to 0.953 (locus CAU85). Analyzing the individual loci, the highest PIC value, more than 0.7 was observed for: loci CAU85 (0.932), CAU64 (0.861) and CAU32, 75 (0.852), respectively. It should be noted, that the microsatellite markers used in our study were very polymorphic as evidenced by the large number of detected alleles and high rates of heterozygosity, PIC and PE as well. The analysed microsatellite markers may be used in genetic linkage mapping of ostrich, the construction of a comparative genetic map with other ratites, such as emu and rhea, and population genetics studies or phylogenetic studies of these birds.

The spleen structurally and functionally belongs to the hematopoietic organs and is also an important component of the reticuloendothelial system, which is known to play a major role in host defense. The histological structure of the spleen was investigated in the ostrich, a non-flying bird, the kestrel, a raptor, and the osprey, a fish-eating bird of prey (fish eagle). For this purpose, Mallory's modified triple stain, methyl green-pyronin and silver stain were used. Germinal centers were not present in the spleen of the osprey. In the spleen of the kestrel, penicillar arterioles and the surrounding lymphoid tissue were markedly dense. Compared to the other two birds, the red and white pulps were clearly distinguishable in the spleen of the ostrich.

The spring mound deposit Florisbad (Free State, South Africa) yielded several bird remains dating to the late Middle Pleistocene. These specimens derive from spring vent structures and are the product of natural taphonomic processes relating to the spring as primary sampling agent. The bird fossils can be assigned to Ostrich, Struthio camelus; Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber roseus; Wattled Crane, Bugeranus carunculatus; an anatine dabbling duck; and a francolin with strong resemblance to Shelley’s Francolin, Scleroptila shelleyi. As in the case of the large mammal record, the bird remains from the Florisbad spring reflect two components in the palaeoenvironment. Evidence for Greater Flamingo, Wattled Crane, and a dabbling duck strongly supports previous hypotheses regarding the presence of a palaeolake system, while records for Ostrich and a francolin, but also Wattled Crane accord with the presence of open landscapes, such as grasslands.

Most ground nesters lay pigmented eggs, and egg pigmentation generally matches the environment. Pigmentation of eggs has evolved as a protective device against predation, but dark-pigmented eggs can be susceptible to overheating when exposed to solar radiation. The Ostrich (Struthio camelus) lays white eggs that are unattended for the first few weeks before incubation, and are quite visible to predators. To evaluate the effect of colour on the surface and core temperatures, we painted some Ostrich eggs dark brown or white, and left some unpainted (control), and exposed all of them directly to the sun during the day. The surface and core temperatures of brown eggs were significantly higher than those of the white-painted and control eggs. In addition, the core temperature of brown eggs exceeded 37.5°C, which is the temperature at which embryo mortality starts to increase. In a second experiment, we placed eggs (brown-painted and control) in various types of vegetation to study their visibility to an observer walking towards them. The white eggs were discovered from a significantly longer distance than the brown eggs, indicating that the predation risk may be much higher for white eggs. The results thus suggest that white eggs minimise overheating and allow the Ostrich to leave its eggs unattended before incubation starts, but they are more susceptible to predation.

The testicular capsule and peritubular boundary tissue of the emu and ostrich, as typical representatives of ratite birds, were studied in sexually mature and active birds. The testicular capsule was much thicker (578.1+/-73.4 microm for the free surface of the ostrich testis, and 176.2+/-57.5 microm for the emu) than those of members of the Galloanserae. The cellular composition of both testicular capsule and peritubular tissue was similar generally to that of members of the previously studied Galloanserae and of mammals. The tunica albuginea of the testicular capsule mainly comprised smooth-muscle-like or myoid cells mostly running in one direction and occurring in one main mass. Unlike the Galloanserae, the tunica albuginea contained more collagen fibres than smooth muscle cells, especially in the ostrich. Peritubular tissue was similarly composed of smooth-muscle-like cells distributed in several layers. Actin microfilaments and desmin and vimentin intermediate filaments were variably immunoexpressed in these two tissue types in both birds, with a clear dichotomy in the peritubular tissue. Thus, taken together with studies of some members of the Galloanserae, avian testes clearly contain a morphological mechanism that is represented partly by the smooth muscle cells of the testicular capsule and peritubular tissue for transporting the testicular fluid, which is usually copious in birds, and its cellular content from the testis into the excurrent duct system; this mechanism is similar to that found in mammals.

This review discusses the historical, developmental and practices of ostrich farming in Egypt. In the early 20th century, ostrich farming was very important for production of ostrich feathers and documents were produced to perfect the art of procuring the plumes from the birds and subsequently processing them. Pharaohs used ostrich feathers for adornment. Of 43 provinces, 12 were featured in 2003-2004 as farming ostriches: Alexandria, Al-Behera, Al-Dakahlia, Al-Wadi Al-Gadid, Aswan, Cairo, El-Sharkia, Geiza, Ismailia, Kafr-El-Sheikh, Matrouh and Nubaria. Abattoirs and tanneries specialising in ostrich handling are limited to two. Egypt has numerous strengths and opportunities to develop its ostrich sector. Rising meat prices suggest that fresh ostrich meat is unaffordable to many locals. Funds may be allocated to local advertising campaigns to promote ostrich meat; provision of incentives to farmers; and improving the capacity of abattoirs.

Two different types of novel satellite DNA (stDNA) sequences were cloned from the lesser rhea (Ptercnemia pennata) and the greater rhea (Rhea americana) after digestion of genomic DNAs with a restriction endonuclease Pvu II, and characterized by filter hybridization and in-situ hybridization to metaphase chromosomes. These nucleotide sequences consisted of GC-rich 288-bp and 332-bp repeated elements in P. pennata and 288-bp and 336-bp repeated elements in R. americana, all of which were organized in tandem arrays in the genome. The 288-bp and 332-bp elements of P. pennata displayed strong sequence similarity with the 288-bp and 336-bp elements of R. americana, respectively. The 332-bp and 336-bp elements were located on almost all the microchromosomes in both the species. The other type of repeated elements, the 288-bp element, was located on four and nine pairs of microchromosomes in P. pennata and R. americana, respectively. All the stDNA sequences were not crosshybridized to genomic DNAs of another three ratite species, ostrich (Struthio camelus), cassowary (Casuarius casuarius) and emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), suggesting that these stDNA sequences are conserved in the same family but fairly divergent among the different families of Struthioniformes.

The possibility was investigated that translocation of juvenile ostriches from concrete-paved to sand-floored pens and mixing of batches of ostriches after such translocation constitute a stress strong enough to evoke changes in the ratio of heterophils to lymphocytes. Blood smears were obtained from 15 ostriches out of a group of 25 birds 4 and 2 days before and then 2 and 4 days after translocation. The heterophil to lymphocyte ratio changed from 0.27 and 0.37 on days 4 and 2, respectively, before mixing and translocation to 0.53 and 0.84 on days 2 and 4, respectively, after translocation. Mixing and translocating juvenile ostriches appears to constitute stress. This information is important for the on-farm management of juvenile ostriches to enhance their welfare and productivity.

There are many obstacles which impede progress in the ostrich industry. Despite a century of commercial ostrich production, there has been little progress in scientific research which deals with management practices, health care, nutrition, or breeding. The fertility of ostrich eggs is poor in comparison with more conventional domesticated birds and is a major problem in the efficient production of ostriches under farming conditions. In order to study the bacterial populations of ostrich eggs that were determined infertile by candling, swab samples were prepared from the contents of 40 infertile eggs and inoculated into tryptic soy broth and selenite-F broths. The media was incubated at 37°C and then subcultured on solid media. The identification of the isolated colonies was performed using standard bacteriological and biochemical procedures. Microbiologic investigations showed bacterial isolation in 45% of the samples from infertile eggs including: Bacillus spp. (33.4%), Staphylococcus spp. (29.1%), Escherichia coli (12.5%), Proteus spp. (12.5%), Streptococcus spp. (8.3%), and Klebsiella spp. (4.2%).

Culicoides species are small biting £ies, 1^3 mm in size, that are obligate blood suckers, attacking mammals, birds and humans. Biting midges are notorious for irritating ostriches when they attack in large numbers and thus cause ill-thrift (Huchzermeyer, 1994). They may also be vectors of Plasmodium struthionis and Leucocytozoon struthionis and mechanical transmitters of fowlpox virus, Wesselsbron disease virus and ¢lariosis (Huchzermeyer, 1994). Ostriches are kept for their meat, leather and feathers and, since there is a high demand for ostrich meat, which is low in cholesterol (Shanawany, 1995), ostrich farming has recently been intensi¢ed. In this report, the composition of Culicoides spp. collected in a light trap placed near ostrich chicks is described.

Limb deformities were detected in 135 out of 885 ostrich chicks, giving a prevalence of 15.3%. Tibiotarsal rotation affected 73% of the chicks with limb deformities, whereas rolled toes accounted for 36%. The right leg was more often affected than the left leg. The incidence of limb deformities was highest in 2- to 3-week-old ostrich chicks. The incidence of limb deformities was highest at the beginning of the breeding season and lowest towards the end, when it was relatively warmer. The mean serum manganese and zinc levels in deformed ostrich chicks were higher than the levels reported for normal chicks.

Thirty-seven ostrich chicks raised artificially had their weights, lengths of metatarsus and heights measured weekly from hatching to the 16th week. Despite weight loss during the first week due to utilization of egg yolk by the chicks, the chicks showed and exponential growth up to the twelfth week with an overall mean weekly weight gain of 1.3 kg. Female chicks showed a superior mean weekly gain of 1.6 kg compared to 1.2 kg for males. The metatarsal length grew rapidly at a weekly rate of 2.5 cm, but began to decline in the 11th week even though the weights and heights of the chicks were still increasing. The correlation coefficient between body weight and metatarsal length was 0.97. Individual chicks also maintained their respective heavy or light weight hierarchies throughout the study period. Thus isolation of chicks into groups by weight and raising them separately could have a role in the artificial rearing of ostrich chicks. Furthermore, ostrich chick rearing may be improved by regularly weighing chicks as a means of detecting changes in the growth patterns.

Background Ostrich (Struthio camelus) breeds have been gaining increasing significance around the world. The large-scale sex determination of chicks is an important task in the development of these breeds. To date, two PCR-based methods have been established for ostrich sex typing, neither of them intended for large-scale analyses. Here, we report on a protocol adapted to carry out large-scale gender scoring using DNA obtained from chick feathers. Results The DNA was extracted using a fast and simple alkaline extraction protocol that provided sufficient template for an early diagnosis. Tests with several primer sets enabled us to determine the best internal control primers associated with the sex-specific primers, avoiding spurious bands. Using DNA extracted from a single bulb and the best set of primers, we applied this protocol to simultaneously sex-type 96 individuals accurately. Conclusion We have established a fast, safe, accurate and inexpensive procedure for large-scale sex typing of ostriches using DNA extracted from feathers. This procedure is useful for the gender identification of chicks in the first days of nestling life.

STUDIES of the physiology and water relations of desert birds have dealt with a few carinate species1, but practically nothing is yet known of the adaptations of the ostrich Struthio camelus L. to hot, dry environments. Because it is large, the ostrich cannot obtain shelter from the rigours of its environment in the manner of smaller birds, but we have found it to possess salt-excretory nasal glands which enable it to utilize saline water. At least one subspecies, S. camelus massaicus, frequents the neighbourhood of salt and soda lakes2. It has been suggested that ostriches can exist on dry or succulent food without needing free water, but no experiments have previously been carried out to confirm this. We are therefore investigating the water economy of S. camelus in the Sudan.