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Chemistry educator Alex H. Johnstone is perhaps best known for his insight that chemistry is best explained using macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic perspectives. But in his writings, he stressed a broader thesis, namely that teaching should be guided by scientific research on how the brain learns: cognitive science. Since Johnstone’s retirement, science’s understanding of learning has progressed rapidly. A surprising discovery has been when solving chemistry problems of any complexity, reasoning does not work: students must apply very-well-memorized facts and algorithms. Following Johnstone’s advice, we review recent discoveries of cognitive science research. Instructional strategies are recommended that cognitive studies have shown help students learn chemistry.

There is a considerable gap between many of the findings from educational psychology research and educational practice. This gap is especially notable in the field of science education. In this article, the implications of three categories of research and their findings for science educational policy in the USA and other jurisdictions were reviewed. We indicate that a particular category of research that we call “Program-Based Studies,” has dominated the formulation of educational standards while a large number of critical findings from randomized, controlled studies and correlational studies that overwhelmingly show minimal support for the suggested policy have been marked as irrelevant and excluded. The current blanket-emphasis on program-based studies at the expense of the other types of research is misplaced. Educational standards should represent a balanced view of the available data including findings from controlled and correlational studies. Finally, we indicate how these different forms of research might inform each other and provide coherent and consistent implications for educational procedures.

Collaborative learning is a widely used instructional technique, but factors determining its effectiveness still are unclear. Cognitive load theory was used to examine the effects of prior collaborative experience and density of distribution of information amongst learners on short-term retention and delayed retention tests, as well as cognitive efficiency of collaborative learning and its outcomes. Data obtained with 240 secondary school students showed that groups with experience in collaboration outperformed and were more cognitively efficient than inexperienced groups, and low information density increased performance during the learning process. Also, when tasks required processing high information density, experienced groups were more cognitively efficient than inexperienced groups. For tasks with low information density no difference was found. These results provide instructional implications for designing effective collaborative learning environments.

De verpleegkundige zorgverlening verschuift steeds meer naar zorg in de gemeenschap aan oudere patiënten met complexe gezondheidsproblemen, die tot op hoge leeftijd thuis blijven wonen. Door kwalitatief goede zorg te bieden, moeten huidige en toekomstige wijkverpleegkundigen bevorderen dat patiënten zich langduriger in hun eigen omgeving kunnen handhaven [1]. Hbo-opgeleide wijkverpleegkundigen vervullen een spilfunctie door de autonome positie die hen door de overheid wordt toegekend, onder meer met de bevoegdheid tot het zelfstandig indiceren van zorg [2]. De Vereniging Verpleegkundigen & Verzorgenden Nederland (V&VN), en met haar de overheid, stelt echter dat er een landelijk tekort is aan goed opgeleide wijkverpleegkundigen. Hoewel de Tweede Kamer eind 2008 in de motie Hamer al verzocht geld beschikbaar te stellen voor uitbreiding van het aantal hbo-wijkverpleegkundigen, is de verwachting dat het tekort al in 2019 zal oplopen tot minimaal 2.200 wijkverpleegkundigen [3]....

In complex cognitive domains such as air traffic control, professionals must be able to adapt to and act upon continuing changes in a highly advanced technological work environment. To function optimally in such an environment, the controllers must be able to regulate their learning. Although these regulation skills should be part of their training, this is not usually the case. This study evaluates a training program that integrates air traffic control skills with regulation skills. The participants were 29 air traffic control students who followed either the original training program (n = 12) or a new program (n = 17) in which the development of regulation skills was embedded in the training of domain specific skills. Compared to students in the original program, the students in the new program showed increased self-efficacy in the use of self-regulated learning skills with improved performance in domain specific competences. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to the daily training practice of complex cognitive skills.

Social presence – the degree to which „the other‟ in a communication appears to be a „real‟ person – has captured the attention of those dealing with learning in groups through computer-supported collaborative learning environments. The concept is important because it affects participation and social interaction, both necessary for effective collaboration and knowledge construction. This article reports on the construction and validation of a self-reporting (Dutch-language) Social Presence Scale to determine perceived social presence in distributed learning groups using computer-supported collaborative learning environments. The result is a onedimensional scale consisting of five items with an internal consistency of .81. We used a nomological network of similar constructs for further validation. The findings suggest that the Social Presence Scale has potential to be useful as a measure for social presence.

To gain insight in the social processes that underlie knowledge sharing in teams, this article questions which team learning behaviors lead to the construction of a shared mental model. Additionally, it explores how the development of shared mental models mediates the relation between team learning behaviors and team effectiveness. Analyses were performed on student-teams engaged in a business simulation game. The measurement of shared mental models was based on cognitive mapping techniques. The results indicate that a team learning perspective provides insight in how people share knowledge. Particularly the team learning behaviors identified as co-construction and constructive conflict are related to the development of shared mental models. In addition, a shared mental model of the task environment in a team leads to improved performance. This underscores the importance of developing shared cognition in teamwork.

A General Practitioner (GP) is no longer a loner, but a team player in either a group practice or a care centre. This change has led to a concomitant growth in curricular interest in skills essential for successful collaboration and for enhancing critical reflection towards colleagues' performance. Giving and receiving constructive feedback are examples of these skills. The aim of this study was to gain insight in the style and quality of feedback reports on consultation skills written by GPs-in-Training (GPiTs) and by their GP-trainers. Furthermore, the preferences of the GPiTs concerning feedback style were examined. Results show significant differences between GP-trainers and GPiTs in feedback style and quality. A ranking task indicated that GPiTs have a preference for reports characterised by a large number of reflective remarks. Questionnaire results indicate the added value of the use of peer feedback. Implications for the integration of peer feedback activities in the curriculum of GPiTs are discussed.

The article presents empirical evidence for the effectiveness and efficiency of a modified version of Trochim's (1989a, b) concept mapping approach to define the characteristics of an adaptive learning environment. The effectiveness and the efficiency of the method are attributed to the support that it provides in terms of elicitation, sharing, reflection and representation of knowledge. It produced valuable results in a very short time as compared to classical techniques such as questionnaires and interviews. The interpretation of data suggests some theoretical considerations and practical solutions for the design and development of an adaptive e-learning environment. The research also points to a number of ways to improve the technique in terms of time for discussing ideas, visualization, and explicit support for generating unconventional ideas.

This study in the domain of statistics comparesfour information presentation formats in a 2 × 2factorial design: timing of supportiveinformation (before or during taskpractice) × timing of procedural information(before or during task practice).Seventy-two psychology and education students(7 male and 65 female; mean age 18.5 years,SD = 2.85) participated. Theeffectiveness of the learning material wasmeasured by test performance. The instructionalefficiency was measured by a combination ofmental effort during practice and testperformance (i.e., a high test performancecombined with a low mental effort duringpractice denotes a high instructionalefficiency). ANOVA showed a main effect fortiming of supportive information: presentationduring practice led to more efficient learning than presentationbefore practice. Moreover, an interactioneffect was found. Simultaneous presentation ofprocedural information before andsupportive information during practiceled to the most efficient learning.

Learners are often overwhelmed by the complexity of realistic learning tasks, but reducing this complexity through traditional Instructional Design (ID) methods jeopardizes the authenticity of the learning experience. To solve this apparent paradox, a two-phase ID model is presented. Phase 1 consists of cognitive task analysis, where a systematic approach to problem solving (SAP) is identified in conjunction with skill decomposition and determination of task complexity. In the subsequent design phase, inductive micro-level sequencing based on the four-component ID model (van Merrienboer, 1997) is applied where worked-out examples and problems accompanied by process worksheets assure the necessary variability of practice. Step size in a multiple-step whole-task approach—needed for the process worksheets—is determined on the basis of estimated part-task complexity. A developmental study of the model is illustrated with examples from the domain of law.

Three worlds of ID are distinguished. The Worldof Knowledge stresses the analysis of learningoutcomes in knowledge structures and theselection of instructional strategies forparticular outcomes; the World of Learningfocuses on particular learning processes andthe synthesis of strategies that support thoseprocesses; the World of Work focuses onreal-life task performance and strategies thatsupport learners while they work on authenticproblems. Contributions to this Special Issueare discussed within the three-world framework.Implications for future research are discussed,stressing the promise of mental models as atheoretical construct that may help to buildbridges between the three worlds.

Achieving practical objectives in an open distance educational system is a real challenge. Its philosophy requires self-instructional materials that students can study at their own time, place, and pace. Practical work, in particular laboratory work, can test the limits of this philosophy. A new way of thinking about practical work and modern electronic media make it possible to develop a natural sciences degree program with a minimum amount of laboratory sessions and, hopefully, to pursue practical aims which are useful in the student's later profession. The way the Open University of the Netherlands has been developing a practical program according to these starting points is discussed in the first part of this paper. Examples of alternatives for traditional practical work are described in more detail in the second part. Advantages and disadvantages with regards to traditional practical work are discussed.

This article discusses the inherent flaws in considering and using the epistemology of the natural sciences as equivalent to a pedagogic basis for teaching and learning in the natural sciences. It begins with a discussion of the difference between practising science and learning to practice science. It follows with a discussion and refutation of three commonly held motives for using practicals in science education. It concludes with the presentation of three new, better motives for their use.

Students who were required to write three short essays for a university level course on photochemistry at the Open university of the Netherlands received either audio-cassette or written feedback on their essays. The students receiving the audio feedback described their experience as personal, enjoyable, complete and clear. Those receiving written feedback described their experience as adequate. The amount of time spent by instructors supplying the feedback differed minimally (Xauai o = 53 minutes per student; X~itten = 49 minutes) with the major difference lying in the amount of time spent in preparation. This difference, possibly attributable to novelty with audio as a mode for feedback, was not significant. The amount communicated to the students with audio feedback (per instructor) was significantly greater than the amount communicated with written feedback. There was no difference in the final grades for the two groups of students. The Open university of the Netherlands (OuN) is an institution for open higher distance learning. It offers university level courses to its students in seven different subject areas. Its students may study when they want to and where they want to. This philosophy of freedom precludes requiring students to be at a certain place at a certain time for lessons or tutoring. This poses a problem for courses in which assignments need to be instructor graded and accompanied by instruc- tor feedback when returned to the student. This problem is com- pounded by the fact that upper level courses may have as few as one part-time instructor for the whole of the Netherlands. A final problem is the isolation and solitude experienced by students at such an institu- tion for distance education. The students have no structural contact with fellow students and practically no personal contact with the

A university study in the natural sciences, devoid of a practical component such as labora- tory work is virtually unthinkable. One could even go so far as saying that it is extremely rare for anyone to question the necessity of laboratory work in either high school or university science curric- ula. Laboratory work is simply part of the science game. This article discusses the problems concern- ing the use of the laboratory as didactic tool in the educational process, the premises underlying its use in science education and different approaches to its implementation as described in recent literature. This article is primarily directed at a clarification and explicitation of objectives and of their implementation in laboratory work at the Dutch Open University. The effective and efficient use of time spent in the laboratory is a necessity for all educational institutions, but especially for an institution for distance education.

1. Six cases are presented that indicate that chronic duodenal obstruction from a variety of causes, such as superior mesenteric compression, proximal loop obstruction, inflammatory stricture, annular pancreatic stenosis, and malignant constriction, is an etiologic factor in the induction of pancreatic inflammatory disease.