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The cells in tree sapwood form a network of interconnected conduits which enables the transport of water and nutrients from the tree roots to the canopy. Sapwood depth must be assessed when tree water use is estimated from sap flow velocities. However, current approaches to assess sapwood depth are either not applicable universally, or require expensive instruments, the application of chemicals or laborious field efforts. Here, we present a new method, which estimates sapwood depth by thermal imaging of increment cores. Using a low-cost thermal camera for mobile devices, we show that the sapwood–heartwood boundary is detectable by a sharp increase in temperature. Estimated sapwood depths agree with dye estimates (R2 = 0.84). We tested our approach on a broad range of temperate and tropical tree species: Quercus robur, Pinus sylvestris, Swietenia macrophylla, Guazuma ulmifolia, Hymenaea courbaril, Sideroxylon capiri and Astronium graveolens. In nearly all species, the methods agreed within 0.6 cm. Thermal imaging of increment cores provides a straightforward, low-cost, easy-to-use, and species-independent tool to identify sapwood depth. It has further potential to reveal radial differences in sapwood conductivity, to improve water balance estimations on larger scales and to quickly develop allometric relationships.

Overfishing is the primary cause of marine defaunation, yet declines in and increasing extinction risks of individual species are difficult to measure, particularly for the largest predators found in the high seas1-3. Here we calculate two well-established indicators to track progress towards Aichi Biodiversity Targets and Sustainable Development Goals4,5: the Living Planet Index (a measure of changes in abundance aggregated from 57 abundance time-series datasets for 18 oceanic shark and ray species) and the Red List Index (a measure of change in extinction risk calculated for all 31 oceanic species of sharks and rays). We find that, since 1970, the global abundance of oceanic sharks and rays has declined by 71% owing to an 18-fold increase in relative fishing pressure. This depletion has increased the global extinction risk to the point at which three-quarters of the species comprising this functionally important assemblage are threatened with extinction. Strict prohibitions and precautionary science-based catch limits are urgently needed to avert population collapse6,7, avoid the disruption of ecological functions and promote species recovery8,9.

Although early adolescence is increasingly recognized as commencing a sensitive period for social development, little research exists on the impact of trauma exposure during this juncture. We hypothesized that trauma experienced during early adolescence would be particularly disruptive to the acquisition of social skills necessary for healthy future relationships. Among 1500 boys from the National Comorbidity Study Adolescent Supplement, we examined trauma exposure across developmental periods on interpersonal outcomes in late adolescence. Most (62.3%) participants reported prior exposure to at least one potentially traumatic event, and rates of such exposures generally increased linearly over time with a relative spike in exposure occurring at age 15. Trauma exposure during early adolescence, but not other developmental periods, uniquely predicted boys’ perpetration of physical teen dating violence (TDV; OR = 2.2) and broader social problems (B = 2.061, SE = .091) in late adolescence. In contrast, and consistent with existing literature, trauma exposure early in development and during mid-adolescence predicted late adolescence conduct disorder diagnoses. At least in the context of early adolescent exposure, the link between trauma and TDV perpetration may be conceptualized within a broader framework of social competence rather than oft-purported antisociality. Early adolescence may present opportunities for targeted prevention of TDV and broader social problems.

It is well established that nutrient addition influences ecosystem features such as productivity, carbon storage, soil acidification and biodiversity. Less studied are long-term effects of sustained fertiliser application on forest soil characteristics and nutrient supplies, and especially direct and indirect mechanisms underlying changes. We investigated effects of 3 decades versus 1 decade of optimised fertiliser application on soil properties and nutrient supplies in a 30-year-old nutrient optimisation experiment in a Norway spruce plantation in northern Sweden. We tested for direct and indirect effects of fertiliser use through structural equation models and correlations among tree and soil variables. Results showed that soil characteristics, especially organic carbon and nutrient concentrations, were significantly affected by 10- and 30-year fertiliser application. Soil C/N was similar for the short-term versus controls, but decreased for the long-term versus short-term treatment. Although not explicitly measured, it was clear from our analyses and earlier studies at the site that litter accumulation played a key role in explaining these changes in soil properties, while foliar stoichiometry data suggest long-term effects of litter quality. Nutrient supply rates increased more after 30 than 10 years of fertiliser application. Summarized, we showed that the interplay of direct and indirect effects can yield nonlinear patterns over time, as exemplified by soil C/N. Furthermore, we conclude that lagged, indirect effects of fertilisation through altered litter quantity and quality dominate changes in soil characteristics in this forest. These soil characteristics have further relevance to nutrient availability, suggesting that nutrient optimisation can influence soil fertility also indirectly.

Little is known about the extent of genetic connectivity along continuous coastlines in manta rays, or whether site visitation is influenced by relatedness. Such information is pertinent to defining population boundaries and understanding localized dispersal patterns and behaviour. Here, we use 3057 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to evaluate population genetic structure and assess the levels of relatedness at aggregation sites of reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) in southern Mozambique (n = 114). Contrary to indications of limited dispersal along the southern Mozambican coastline inferred from photo-identification and telemetry studies, our results show no evidence of population structure (non-significant F(ST)

Specialized early interventions (SEI) for individuals diagnosed with a first episode of psychosis (FEP) are effective treatment modalities (Azrin et al. in Psychiatr Ann 45(11):548, https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20151103-05 , 2015). SEI offered immediately or shortly following a first episode improves functional and clinical outcomes for those individuals with, and at risk for, serious mental illness (SMI; Correll et al. in JAMA Psychiatry 75(6):555–565, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0623 , 2018). In the United States, SEI programs referred to as Coordinated Specialty Care (CSC), have been utilized to provide a beneficial, team-based, multi-component method of treating FEP. However, despite the success, CSC programming is still met with considerable challenges. This article reviews existing CSC literature to identify and explore relevant barriers to successful implementation of CSC. Identified barriers include stigma, cultural competence, disengagement, measurement and evaluation, workforce development, implementation in rural areas, and financial stability. The ongoing efforts to address these barriers are described and areas for continued improvements are discussed.

Air pollution and smoking are associated with various types of mortality, including cancer. The current study utilizes a publicly accessible, nationally representative cohort to explore relationships between fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure, smoking, and cancer mortality. National Health Interview Survey and mortality follow-up data were combined to create a study population of 635,539 individuals surveyed from 1987 to 2014. A sub-cohort of 341,665 never-smokers from the full cohort was also created. Individuals were assigned modeled PM2.5 exposure based on average exposure from 1999 to 2015 at residential census tract. Cox Proportional Hazard models were utilized to estimate hazard ratios for cancer-specific mortality controlling for age, sex, race, smoking status, body mass, income, education, marital status, rural versus urban, region, and survey year. The risk of all cancer mortality was adversely associated with PM2.5 (per 10 µg/m3 increase) in the full cohort (hazard ratio [HR] 1.15, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.08–1.22) and the never-smokers’ cohort (HR 1.19, 95% CI 1.06–1.33). PM2.5-morality associations were observed specifically for lung, stomach, colorectal, liver, breast, cervix, and bladder, as well as Hodgkin lymphoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and leukemia. The PM2.5-morality association with lung cancer in never-smokers was statistically significant adjusting for multiple comparisons. Cigarette smoking was statistically associated with mortality for many cancer types. Exposure to PM2.5 air pollution contributes to lung cancer mortality and may be a risk factor for other cancer types. Cigarette smoking has a larger impact on cancer mortality than PM2.5 , but is associated with similar cancer types.

Full details of steel angle and tube beam-column connections developed for a “dry” jointed precast concrete frame building whose nonlinear structural performance is aimed to be comparable to that of a cast-in situ/monolithic concrete frame building are reported. Hysteretic behaviour of the frame sub-assemblies with different angle/tube connection configurations is experimentally investigated in this paper whereas the numerical and analytical simulation results are reported in a companion submission. Structural performance of the tested frame sub-assemblies is evaluated by studying the nonlinear cyclic plots and the observed damage states in the connection region. Design parameters influencing the strength and stiffness of the tested frame sub-assemblies are identified by comparing the measured slips and load–displacement envelopes. The moment versus rotation response of the tested connections is classified according to the Eurocode specifications and the beam line method. The erection and dismantling processes of a precast concrete frame with the proposed angle/tube beam-column connection are also explained in brief. Feasibility of replacing a damaged beam with a new beam of the same (or higher) capacity and achieving the same (or better) performance compared to the initially tested frame sub-assembly is also evaluated. Based on the obtained evidences, it can be concluded that a jointed precast concrete frame with the proposed angle/tube beam-column connections can emulate a wet-jointed concrete frame only in certain aspects such as initial lateral stiffness and nominal lateral strength but not the energy dissipation, strength and stiffness degradation, and ductility.

Agriculture is essential for feeding the large and growing world population, but it can also generate pollution that harms ecosystems and human health. Here, we explore the human health effects of air pollution caused by the production of maize—a key agricultural crop that is used for animal feed, ethanol biofuel and human consumption. We use county-level data on agricultural practices and productivity to develop a spatially explicit life-cycle-emissions inventory for maize. From this inventory, we estimate health damages, accounting for atmospheric pollution transport and chemistry, and human exposure to pollution at high spatial resolution. We show that reduced air quality resulting from maize production is associated with 4,300 premature deaths annually in the United States, with estimated damages in monetary terms of US$39 billion (range: US$14–64 billion). Increased concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) are driven by emissions of ammonia—a PM2.5 precursor—that result from nitrogen fertilizer use. Average health damages from reduced air quality are equivalent to US$121 t−1 of harvested maize grain, which is 62% of the US$195 t−1 decadal average maize grain market price. We also estimate life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of maize production, finding total climate change damages of US$4.9 billion (range: US$1.5–7.5 billion), or US$15 t−1 of maize. Our results suggest potential benefits from strategic interventions in maize production, including changing the fertilizer type and application method, improving nitrogen use efficiency, switching to crops requiring less fertilizer, and geographically reallocating production. Agriculture sustains a large and growing human population, but generates widespread impacts. This study assesses the health effects of air pollution caused by maize production. Reduced air quality leads to 4,300 premature deaths annually in the United States, akin to US$39 billion in damages, and climate change damages of US$4.9 billion.

Driven by economic growth, globalization and e-commerce, freight per capita in the United States has been consistently increasing in recent decades. Projecting to 2050, we explore the emissions, and health and climate impacts of US freight truck and rail transport under various policy scenarios. We predict that, overall, air pollutant emissions and health impacts from the freight-truck-rail system will be greatly reduced from 2010 to 2030, while long-term climate forcing will continue to increase if petroleum is the fuel source. A carbon tax could shift freight shipments from trucking to energy-efficient rail, providing the greatest reduction in long-term forcing among all policies (24%), whereas a policy enforcing truck fleet maintenance would cause the largest reduction in air pollutant emissions, offering the largest reduction in mortalities (36%). Increasing urban compactness could reduce freight activity but increase population exposure per unit emission, offering slight health benefits over the current urban sprawl trend (13%). Per-capita freight in the United States has been increasing in recent decades. This study presents projections to 2050 to examine the emissions, and health and climate impacts of US freight truck and rail transportation under various policy scenarios.

Despite substantial progress in mobulid research over the past decade, knowledge gaps in manta ray ecology and behaviour remain, particularly in the South Atlantic Ocean. Opportunistic photographic and video records of manta rays collected between 2002 and 2019 at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (FNA) in northeast Brazil provide evidence to support the year-round use of the region by manta rays (believed to beMobulacf.birostris). From a total of 130 sighting records, manta rays exhibited feeding behaviour in 36.9% (n = 48) of sightings, indicating that the shallow waters surrounding the archipelago are used as feeding grounds. Approximately half of the records (53.8%) corresponded to identified individuals that were re-sighted repeatedly, using the area in different seasons and for several years. Of the compiled records, 69.2% of sightings were of small individuals (≤3 m disc width). All identified males had undeveloped claspers and females had no visible mating scars, suggesting a juvenile population. Despite being limited to a small local sample, here we present the first report of manta rays atFNAand provide preliminary evidence of feeding behaviour by juvenile manta rays in Brazil. This information contributes to our understanding of the regional distribution and habitat use of manta rays in Brazilian waters.

Reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) are social elasmobranchs that have structured societies and actively interact with preferred social partners. Being able to detect cues and signals produced by conspecifics is vital in enabling social behavior. Many elasmobranch species communicate via body and fin postures, but it is not yet known if or how mobulid rays communicate or respond to cues produced by conspecifics. These rays have specialized cephalic lobes that are highly flexible and used in feeding, but may have other functions such as gestural communication. In this study, we developed a standardized method to assess manta ray behavior in the wild via focal sampling and frame-by-frame video analysis. From observations recorded at cleaning stations in Raja Ampat, West Papua, we described various types of cephalic lobe positioning and movements made by free-ranging M. alfredi and investigated these in different behavioral contexts. We found that cephalic lobe curls were modulated when approaching both conspecifics and human divers, as well as during interactions with cleaner fish, suggesting that these lobes may be used in sensing water movements, olfactory sensing, and/or gestural communication. Cephalic lobes were moved independently of one another, but we found no evidence of individual laterality. The lack of chemosensory capacity on the lobes suggests that gestural communication is the most likely function, but further research is required to determine this. These results are informative in understanding the function of gestural communication in manta ray social interactions and add to our growing understanding of elasmobranchs’ sophisticated social behavior. Social animals rely on communication and cues produced by conspecifics to respond to opportunities and threats. Many elasmobranch species use body and fin postures as gestural signals during competitive, courtship, and other social interactions. Reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi) are social elasmobranchs that form groups in near-shore, shallow water habitats. They possess paired, flexible cephalic lobes positioned on the side of the head which are specialized for feeding but may have a variety of functions. Here, we describe, quantify, and suggest likely explanations for the movement and positioning of cephalic lobes during various manta ray social behaviors, including conspecific, human, and cleaner fish interactions. Our results suggest that lobe movements may be used in detecting water movements, olfactory sensing, and/or gestural communication, and are an important aspect of social behavior in this species.

Roughly 2.8 billion people depend on solid fuels for cooking needs, resulting in a tremendous burden of disease from exposure to household air pollution. Despite decades of effort to promote cleaner cooking technologies, displacement of polluting technologies has progressed slowly. This paper describes results of a randomized controlled trial in which eight communities in two regions of rural India were presented with a range of cooking choices including improved solid fuel stoves and clean cooking options like liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and induction stoves. Using survey data and logistic and multinomial regression, we identify factors associated with two outcomes: (1) pre-intervention ownership of non-solid fuel technologies and (2) household preferences for clean fuels from the range of cooking options offered. The analysis allows us to examine the influence of education, wealth, gender empowerment, stove pricing, and stove exchanges, among other variables. The majority of participants across all communities selected the cleanest options, LPG and induction, irrespective of price, but there is some variation in preferences. Wealth and higher caste stand out as significant predictors of pre-intervention ownership and non-solid fuel cooking options as well as preference for cleaner technologies offered through the intervention. The experimental treatments also influence preferences in some communities. When given the opportunity to exchange, communities in one region are more likely to choose solid fuel stoves (P

During both embryonic development and adult tissue regeneration, changes in chromatin structure driven by master transcription factors lead to stimulus-responsive transcriptional programs. A thorough understanding of how stem cells in the skeleton interpret mechanical stimuli and enact regeneration would shed light on how forces are transduced to the nucleus in regenerative processes. Here we develop a genetically dissectible mouse model of mandibular distraction osteogenesis—which is a process that is used in humans to correct an undersized lower jaw that involves surgically separating the jaw bone, which elicits new bone growth in the gap. We use this model to show that regions of newly formed bone are clonally derived from stem cells that reside in the skeleton. Using chromatin and transcriptional profiling, we show that these stem-cell populations gain activity within the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signalling pathway, and that inhibiting FAK abolishes new bone formation. Mechanotransduction via FAK in skeletal stem cells during distraction activates a gene-regulatory program and retrotransposons that are normally active in primitive neural crest cells, from which skeletal stem cells arise during development. This reversion to a developmental state underlies the robust tissue growth that facilitates stem-cell-based regeneration of adult skeletal tissue. Reversion of adult skeletal stem cells to a developmental state underlies the growth of new bone during jaw regeneration, in a process that relies on mechanotransduction via the focal adhesion kinase protein.

Loss of dopamine in Parkinson's disease is hypothesized to impede movement by inducing hypo- and hyperactivity in striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs) of the direct (dSPNs) and indirect (iSPNs) pathways in the basal ganglia, respectively. The opposite imbalance might underlie hyperkinetic abnormalities, such as dyskinesia caused by treatment of Parkinson’s disease with the dopamine precursor l-DOPA. Here we monitored thousands of SPNs in behaving mice, before and after dopamine depletion and during l-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Normally, intermingled clusters of dSPNs and iSPNs coactivated before movement. Dopamine depletion unbalanced SPN activity rates and disrupted the movement-encoding iSPN clusters. Matching their clinical efficacy, l-DOPA or agonism of the D2 dopamine receptor reversed these abnormalities more effectively than agonism of the D1 dopamine receptor. The opposite pathophysiology arose in l-DOPA-induced dyskinesia, during which iSPNs showed hypoactivity and dSPNs showed unclustered hyperactivity. Therefore, both the spatiotemporal profiles and rates of SPN activity appear crucial to striatal function, and next-generation treatments for basal ganglia disorders should target both facets of striatal activity. In mouse models of Parkinson’s disease and dyskinesia, striatal spiny projection neurons of the direct and indirect pathways have abnormal, imbalanced levels of spontaneous and locomotor-related activity, with the two different disease states characterized by opposite abnormalities.

Urban form can impact air pollution and public health. We reviewed health-related articles that assessed (1) the relationships among urban form, air pollution, and health as well as (2) aspects of the urban environment (i.e., green space, noise, physical activity) that may modify those relationships. Simulation and empirical studies demonstrate an association between compact growth, improved regional air quality, and health. Most studies are cross-sectional and focus on connections between transportation emissions and land use. The physical and mental health impacts of green space, public spaces that promote physical activity, and noise are well-studied aspects of the urban environment and there is evidence that these factors may modify the relationship between air pollution and health. Urban form can support efforts to design clean, health-promoting cities. More work is needed to operationalize specific strategies and to elucidate the causal pathways connecting various aspects of health.

Vitamin D is principally known for its role in calcium homeostasis, but preclinical studies implicate multiple pathways through which vitamin D may affect cardiovascular function and influence risk for heart failure. Many adults with cardiovascular disease have low vitamin D status, making it a potential therapeutic target. We review the rationale and potential role of vitamin D supplementation in the prevention and treatment of chronic heart failure. Substantial observational evidence has associated low vitamin D status with the risk of heart failure, ventricular remodeling, and clinical outcomes in heart failure, including mortality. However, trials assessing the influence of vitamin D supplementation on surrogate markers and clinical outcomes in heart failure have generally been small and inconclusive. There are insufficient data to recommend routine assessment or supplementation of vitamin D for the prevention or treatment of chronic heart failure. Prospective trials powered for clinical outcomes are warranted.

The brain’s ability to associate different stimuli is vital to long-term memory, but how neural ensembles encode associative memories is unknown. Here we studied how cell ensembles in the basal and lateral amygdala (BLA) encode associations between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli (CS, US). Using a miniature fluorescence microscope, we tracked BLA ensemble neural Ca2+ dynamics during fear learning and extinction over six days in behaving mice. Fear conditioning induced both up- and down-regulation of individual cells’ CS-evoked responses. This bi-directional plasticity mainly occurred after conditioning and reshaped the CS ensemble neural representation to gain similarity to the US-representation. During extinction training with repetitive CS presentations, the CS-representation became more distinctive without reverting to its original form. Throughout, the strength of the ensemble-encoded CS-US association predicted each mouse’s level of behavioral conditioning. These findings support a supervised learning model in which activation of the US-representation guides the transformation of the CS-representation.

Background Despite considerable efforts at developing therapeutic vaccines for cancer, clinical translation of preclinical successes has been challenging, largely due to the difficulty of inducing strong and sustained cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses in patients. Several peptide-based cancer vaccines have failed to show sustainable tumor regression in the clinic, possibly because of a lack of optimization of both the adjuvant and antigen components of the preparations. Here, we aimed to develop and optimize a vaccine format utilizing a synthetic long peptide (SLP) containing the human papilloma virus 16 (HPV16) E7 antigen, with a centrally located defined MHC class I epitope, and evaluate its immunogenicity and efficacy in combination with various adjuvant formulations. Methods E731–73 SLP was tested alone or in combination with toll-like receptor (TLR)3, TLR4, TLR7/8 and TLR9 agonists and formulated in oil-in-water (o/w) or water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions to determine a vaccine format inducing a robust CD8 T cell response in murine models. Once a lead vaccine format was determined, we examined its ability to inhibit tumor growth in the murine TC-1 model that expresses HPV16 E7 antigen. Results We identified the TLR9 agonist CpG formulated in a squalene-based o/w emulsion as the most potent adjuvant, inducing the expansion of multifunctional antigen specific CD8 T cells with cytolytic potential. We also demonstrated that SLP E731–73 + CpG + o/w emulsion vaccine can provide prophylactic and more importantly, therapeutic benefit in the TC-1 murine tumor model. Conclusions Our results demonstrate that the novel vaccine format E7 SLP + CpG delivered in an o/w emulsion holds potential for the promotion of strong CTL responses and tumor eradication and encourages further development of peptide/adjuvant vaccines in cancer immunotherapy strategies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-019-5725-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

From the moment we are born, every injury to the skin has the potential to form a scar, many of which can impair form and/or function. As such, scar management constitutes a billion-dollar industry. However, effectively promoting scarless wound healing remains an elusive goal. The complex interactions of wound healing contribute to our inability to recapitulate scarless wound repair as it occurs in nature, such as in fetal skin and the oral mucosa. However, many new advances have occurred in recent years, some of which have translated scientific findings from bench to bedside. In vivo lineage tracing has helped establish a variety of novel cellular culprits that may act as key drivers of the fibrotic response. These newly characterized cell populations present further targets for therapeutic intervention, some of which have previously demonstrated promising results in animal models. Here, we discuss several recent studies that identify exciting approaches for diminishing scar formation. Particular attention will also be paid to the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, which plays an important role in both embryogenesis and tissue repair. New insights into the differential effects of Wnt signaling on heterogeneous fibroblast and keratinocyte populations within the skin further demonstrate methods by which wound healing can be re-directed to a more fetal scarless phenotype. Graphical abstract Recent approaches to reducing scar formation. Representation showing novel scientific approaches for decreasing scar formation, including the targeting of pro-fibrotic cell populations based on surface molecule expression (e.g. DPP4(+) fibroblasts, ADAM12(+) pericytes). Modulation of cellular mechanotransduction pathways are another means to reduce scar formation, both at the molecular level or, macroscopically with dressings designed to offload tension, at cutaneous wound sites (ADAM12 a disintegrin and metalloprotease 12, DPP4 dipeptidyl peptidase-4, FAK focal adhesion kinase).

This study evaluated spatial access to mammography centers in Appalachia using both traditional access measures and the two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method. Ratios of county mammography centers to women age 45 and older, driving time to nearest mammography facility, and various 2SFCA approaches were compared throughout Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and North Carolina. Closest travel time measures favored urban areas. The 2SFCA method produced varied results depending on the parameters chosen. Appalachia areas had greater travel times to their closest mammography center. Appalachia areas in OH and NC had worse 2SFCA scores than non-Appalachia areas of the same states. A relative 2SFCA approach, the spatial access ratio method, was recommended because it helped minimize the differences between various 2SFCA approaches.

In many forests of the world, the summer season (temporal element) brings drought conditions causing low soil moisture in the upper soil profile (spatial element)—a potentially large barrier to seedling establishment. We evaluated the relationship between initial seedling root depth, temporal and spatial changes in soil moisture during drought after outplanting, and subsequent seedling performance using seedlings of Pinus ponderosa Laws. var. ponderosa grown in three containers similar in dimension except for depth (i.e. three stocktypes). Soil moisture patterns were quantified and growth, gas exchange, and carbon isotope analysis were used as metrics for stocktype evaluation. Soil moisture reached minimum volumetric soil moisture contents (θ) of 0.078 m3 m−3 at a 15 cm depth and 0.15 m3 m−3 at 90 cm by late summer, which also translated to estimated soil water potential (Ψ soil) values of −2.29 and −0.02 MPa, respectively. Seedling photosynthesis (A) and transpiration (E) rates followed soil moisture trends, also reaching seasonal lows in late summer. In early fall, gas exchange rates nearly doubled following a replenishment of upper-profile soil moisture by precipitation. Over the course of the growing season, stocktypes did not differ in gas exchange rates (P ≥ 0.15), biomass (P ≥ 0.45), root penetration depth (P = 0.60), or carbon isotope signature (P ≥ 0.60). For all seedlings, current-year needles showed greater capacity for A than previous-year needles (P ≤ 0.01), and A was only significantly correlated with soil moisture in the upper soil profile (15 cm; P ≤ 0.03). In this study, stocktype was not a significant factor, suggesting that seedling access to soil moisture was not different among them. The temporal and spatial variation observed in soil moisture availability, however, provides critical biophysical information on outplanting timing as it relates to subsequent seedling establishment and potential root growth. As well, needle formation, carbon gain, and the relationship to soil water depth further indicate the importance for managing soil water or seedling stocktype for successful seedling survival and growth.

The online version of the original article can be found under doi: 10.1186/s13045-017-0410-6 .

Accurate optical reporting of electrical activity in genetically defined neuronal populations is a long-standing goal in neuroscience. Here we describe Accelerated Sensor of Action Potentials 1 (ASAP1), a novel voltage sensor design in which a circularly permuted green fluorescent protein is inserted within an extracellular loop of a voltage-sensing domain, rendering fluorescence responsive to membrane potential. ASAP1 demonstrates on- and off- kinetics of 2.1 and 2.0 ms, reliably detects single action potentials and subthreshold potential changes, and tracks trains of action potential waveforms up to 200 Hz in single trials. With a favorable combination of brightness, dynamic range, and speed, ASAP1 enables continuous monitoring of membrane potential in neurons at KHz frame rates using standard epifluorescence microscopy.

Pinnipeds, that is true seals (Phocidae), eared seals (Otariidae), and walruses (Odobenidae), possess highly developed vibrissal systems for mechanoreception. They can use their vibrissae to detect and discriminate objects by direct touch. At least in Phocidae and Otariidae, the vibrissae can also be used to detect and analyse water movements. Here, we review what is known about this ability, known as hydrodynamic perception, in pinnipeds. Hydrodynamic perception in pinnipeds developed convergently to the hydrodynamic perception with the lateral line system in fish and the sensory hairs in crustaceans. So far two species of pinnipeds, the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) representing the Phocidae and the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) representing the Otariidae, have been studied for their ability to detect local water movements (dipole stimuli) and to follow hydrodynamic trails, that is the water movements left behind by objects that have passed by at an earlier point in time. Both species are highly sensitive to dipole stimuli and can follow hydrodynamic trails accurately. In the individuals tested, California sea lions were clearly more sensitive to dipole stimuli than harbour seals, and harbour seals showed a superior trail following ability as compared to California sea lions. Harbour seals have also been shown to derive additional information from hydrodynamic trails, such as motion direction, size and shape of the object that caused the trail (California sea lions have not yet been tested). The peculiar undulated shape of the harbour seals' vibrissae appears to play a crucial role in trail following, as it suppresses self-generated noise while the animal is swimming.

Polymorphisms (SNP) in the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene can alter sensitivity to glucocorticoids. Previous studies of the N363S and BclI SNP in the GR gene have shown a metabolic syndrome phenotype in mostly non-African populations. The obesity phenotype of African Americans (AA) seems to be more severe than that of Caucasians.We aimed to assess the prevalence of N363S and BclI in obese and non-obese Caucasian (n=26) and African (n=23) Mississippians (age: 23-63 years) to investigate associations with body composition (body mass index/BMI, waist-to-hip ratio), metabolic parameters (salivary cortisol, fasting glucose and insulin, hemoglobin A1C, fructosamine, HOMA-IR index), and psychological stress perception (blood pressure/BP, perceived stress scale/PSS).All subjects were homozygous for wildtype N363N. BclI polymorphism genotype frequencies among the 23 AA were: homozygous CC (57%), GG (4%), and heterozygous CG (39%), and among the 26 white women: homozygous CC (35%), GG (19%), and heterozygous CG (46%). Linear and logistic regression analyses including a parsimonious model identified BMI as a statistically significant parameter between the two ethnic groups (BMI was 3.13 kg/m2 higher in AA). Within the AA group, BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, log (HOMA-IR), PSS scores, BP, and hyperlipidemia showed no statistically significant relationships for the BclI polymorphism. PSS scores were 15.2 for AA vs. 14.7 for white women (normal mean: 14.7 vs. 12.8).Black Mississippians have a higher BMI than whites, which may be related to the presence of the BclI polymorphism and increased glucocorticoid sensitivity. Although more blacks (52%) than whites (38%) had elevated BP, PSS scores in both groups suggest that a high BMI is not regarded as abnormal or stressful. This might negatively impact behavior change regarding lifestyle modifications with increased physical activity and healthier food choices. Larger studies, particularly in African populations, are needed to better define metabolic and psychological characteristics in relation to the N363S and BclI GR gene polymorphisms.

Self-assembly, important in industrial and biological processes, is governed not only by molecular size and shape, but also by hydrogen bonding forces and hydrophobicities, both of which have important temperature-dependent consequences. Recent advances in statistical mechanics enable the study of these processes at the molecular level. We discuss one such approach based on classical density functional theory. The theory, based on extensions and simplifications of Wertheim’s theory for associating molecules, is applicable to study the behavior of water at hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces and supramolecular assembly based on intermolecular association of polyatomic molecules. Insights into the theory and into the physics of associating molecules are discussed.

As the complexity of global materials science challenges increases, so does the need for materials science and engineering literacy and career recruitment. Many funding agencies are addressing this by including requirements for achieving broader impacts (e.g., National Science Foundation grants, European Commission Framework), and resources have been created from a variety of sources to help. This article addresses the issue of how to translate materials science concepts into K–12 outreach activities, with an emphasis on how to use the human, physical, and information resources available. Researchers may best reach their outreach objectives by distilling content rather than diluting it, connecting on a human level, highlighting the true nature of science, not reinventing the wheel, being a role model, and having fun. Initiatives that support outreach efforts are referenced and include examples from the Materials Research Society.

The size and structure of a photographically identified population of reef manta ray, Manta alfredi, were examined at aggregation sites over a four-year period in southern Mozambique. The use and standardisation of photo-ID techniques was examined as a minimally-intrusive means to study this species. Using these techniques, we report on the size, structure and seasonality of this population of M. alfredi. In total, 449 individuals were identified during this time period, 40.5% of which were re-sighted on at least one occasion. The longest period between re-sighting events was 1,252 days. During the study period, annual population size estimates for M.alfredi ranged from 149 to 454 individuals. The superpopulation size estimate for the entire study period was 802 individuals, the first reported for M. alfredi at a monitored aggregation site. A highly significant sex bias was evident with a female:male ratio of 3.55:1. The majority of rays (89.9% males; 49.7% females) were considered mature, with most individuals between 3.0 and 4.9 m in disc width. Manta alfredi were observed at the study sites in each month of the calendar year. The maximum number of individual rays seen per dive was 30. Large numbers of rays (20 + per dive) were seen in the months of November, December and January, which coincide with the breeding season. Natural markings were unique to individuals and did not change substantially with time, which provided further support for their use in the identification of individual M. alfredi over multiple years. Multiple re-sightings of individual M. alfredi suggest that many individuals in this population exhibit site fidelity to the examined aggregation sites. As target subsistence fishing for M. alfredi exists along the Mozambican coastline, management efforts to monitor and prevent overexploitation at these critical habitats should be a priority.

In single-celled spores of the fern Ceratopteris richardii, gravity directs polarity of development and induces a directional, trans-cellular calcium (Ca(2+)) current. To clarify how gravity polarizes this electrophysiological process, we measured the kinetics of the cellular response to changes in the gravity vector, which we initially estimated using the self-referencing calcium microsensor. In order to generate more precise and detailed data, we developed a silicon microfabricated sensor array which facilitated a lab-on-a-chip approach to simultaneously measure calcium currents from multiple cells in real time. These experiments revealed that the direction of the gravity-dependent polar calcium current is reversed in less than 25 s when the cells are inverted, and that changes in the magnitude of the calcium current parallel rapidly changing g-forces during parabolic flight on the NASA C-9 aircraft. The data also revealed a hysteresis in the response of cells in the transition from 2g to micro-g in comparison to cells in the micro-g to 2-g transition, a result consistent with a role for mechanosensitive ion channels in the gravity response. The calcium current is suppressed by either nifedipine (calcium-channel blocker) or eosin yellow (plasma membrane calcium pump inhibitor). Nifedipine disrupts gravity-directed cell polarity, but not spore germination. These results indicate that gravity perception in single plant cells may be mediated by mechanosensitive calcium channels, an idea consistent with some previously proposed models of plant gravity perception.

Advancements in microfabrication technology have lead to the development of planar micro-pore electroporation technology. This technology has been shown to provide greater control in single cell manipulation, and electroporation which is independent from cell size. In this work we report direct and spatially resolved characterization of electric currents within a planar micropore electroporation biochip to better understand this phenomenon at the cellular level. This work was performed using a two-dimensional (2-D) vibrating probe (VP). Analysis of the spatial patterns of current density yielded a 4th order polynomial profile in the planes parallel to the biochip's surface and a three parameter hyperbolic decay profile in the planes perpendicular to the chip surface. A finite element model was developed which correlates with actual measurements on the micropore. Preliminary VP current density measurements of electroporated HepG2 cells revealed a significantly high current density minutes after electroporation even with non-electroporative pulses. These results indicate that cells take a considerable amount of time for complete electrophysiological recovery and indicate the use of the VP as a cell viability indicator for optimized electroporation.

Understanding the rheological behavior of dilute dispersions of cylindrical nanomaterials in fluids is the first step towards the development of rheological models for these materials. Individual particle tracking was used to quantify the rotational and translational diffusivities of high-aspect-ratio germanium nanowires in alcohol solvents at room temperature. In spite of their long lengths and high aspect ratios, the rods were found to undergo Brownian motion. This work represents the first time that the effects of solvent viscosity and confinement have been directly measured and the results compared to proposed theoretical models. Using viscosity as a single adjustable parameter in the Kirkwood model for Brownian rods was found to be a facile and versatile way of predicting the diffusivities of nanowires across a broad range of length scales.

Chromium is ubiquitous; whereas in small amounts Cr(III) is vital in the diet of humans, Cr(VI) is highly toxic. The latter is commonly found in contaminated waters and brownfields worldwide. Zero-valent iron (Fe0) can detoxify Cr(VI) efficiently by mediating its reduction to Cr(III). In this study, a Cr(VI)-contaminated soil was treated with a surfactant solution (Tween® 20) and the resulting extract was reacted in acidic medium with Fe0. The disappearance of Cr(VI) with time was determined with the 1,5-diphenylcarbazide colorimetric method using single-wavelength spectrophotometry (SWS) and dual-wavelength spectrophotometry (DWS). The major sources of uncertainty in the measurements were identified and calculated in both cases. Over the entire course of the reaction, the uncertainty associated with the mass concentration of Cr(VI), γ(Cr), was decreased appreciably for the DWS method relative to the conventional (SWS) method of quantitation.

The term ‘knowledge economy’, like the term ‘globalisation’, has become a catchword in political and educational debate over the last decade or so, especially in debates upon educational policy where the role of education in preparing young people to take their part in the Knowledge Economy is often seen as paramount over other traditional schooling activities. It is said in such debates that the production of knowledge, information and skills, will become more valuable than traditional primary and secondary production. A lot is said about the knowledge required in the Knowledge Economy, and about how institutions, businesses, activities and human beings are to be ordered or structured in accordance with views of knowledge and new Management theories. But little is said of the young people expected to take their part in the knowledge economy. Do they have a choice? Is lying on a surfboard excluded from their life options? How will they be developed, trained or educated to take their part? Will they be committed to developing their selves in accordance with the model of the IT Knowledge Entrepreneur (hereinafter TIKE) presented as a model for education by policy makers in the Knowledge Economy? This article will argue against this latter notion of the development of the self, arguing that because knowledge is prioritised over ethics, there is both an inadequate notion of the self and the educational development of the self and, because of its implicit view only of ethics, an inadequate ethical and moral view of education [246 words].

We report the point-by-point inscription of gratings in lithographically fabricated polymer ridge waveguides using direct-write laser processing. This device exhibited narrow-band-pass spectral features of ∼0.8 nm full-width-half-maximum, suitable for wavelength division multiplexing applications. © 2007 Springer-Verlag.

Metabolite profiles based on GC/MS were used to study the temporal dynamics of metabolites in potato leaves following pathogen inoculation. In the polar and non-polar plant extracts a total of 106 consistent peaks were detected, of which 95 metabolites were tentatively identified. Following pathogen inoculation, the abundances of 42 metabolites were significantly increased or decreased, and these metabolites were designated as Pathogenesis-Related (PR) Metabolites. Factor analysis of the abundance of 106 metabolites identified four plant–pathogen interaction functions: (i) homeostasis; (ii) primary defence; (iii) secondary defence; (iv) collapse of primary and secondary defence responses. During the primary and secondary defence phases, dramatic changes in the amino acids, known precursors of several plant defence-related metabolites, were observed. Plausible satellite-networks of metabolic pathways leading to the up-regulation of these families of amino acids and other secondary metabolites, and their potential application for the evaluation of horizontal resistance in potato against the late blight pathogen is discussed.

It is well known that infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) dysregulates cell physiology, but little information is available on the consequences of HIV infection in primary macrophages and microglia. The authors examined the relationship between cell proliferation and HIV infection in primary cultures of microglia and in human central nervous system (CNS). In cultures infected with HIV (ADA and BaL), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-mediated cell proliferation was reduced in productively infected (p24+) cells as compared to p24- cells. The reduction was observed with both Ki67 and BrdU labeling, suggesting a G1/S block. The reduction was insignificant when microglia were infected with a Vpr- mutant virus. In human CNS, proliferating (Ki67+) cells were rare but were increased in the HIV+ and HIV encephalitis (HIVE) groups compared to the HIV- group. A positive correlation between GM-CSF immunoreactivity and Ki67 counts, implicating GM-CSF as a growth factor in human CNS was found. The relationship between total macrophage (CD68+) proliferation and infected macrophage (p24+) proliferation was assessed in HIVE by double labeling. Whereas 1.2% of total CD68+ cells were Ki67+, only 0.5% of HIV p24+ cells were Ki67+ (P.05). Furthermore, staining for CD45RB (as opposed to CD68) facilitated the identification of Ki67+ microglia, indicating that CD68 could underestimate proliferating microglia. The authors conclude that although there is increased expression of GM-CSF and increased cell proliferation in the CNS of HIV-seropositive individuals, cell proliferation in the productively infected population is actually suppressed. These data suggest that there might be a viral gain in the suppressed host cell proliferation.

First I would like to thank Clarence Joldersma for his review of our Poststructuralism, Philosophy, Pedagogy (Marshall, 2004-PPP). In particular, I would thank him for his opening sentence: “[t]his book is a response to a lack.” It is the notion of a lack, noted again later in his review, which I wish to take up mainly in this response. Rather than defending or elaborating our particular contributions to PPP—the latter would be a great indignity to my colleagues as I would not write over them—I will take the opportunity to develop the theme of a lack, as I believe that Joldersma has raised a very important issue. But first I will respond briefly to some of Joldersma’s general and opening statements about the book, and my philosophical position in particular.

In this paper I wish to comment upon the use of polemical argument in philosophy of education and education. Like Foucault, I believe that a whole morality is at stake because polemical argument obfuscates the search for truth at the expense of truth and the other’s veracity, integrity and dignity. The use of polemics is illustrated by two arguments. The first general argument is taken from an attack upon Albert Camus by the British writer Colin Wilson. The second more particular example is taken from attacks in New Zealand by the State Department of Education upon the educational ideas of the novelist and educator Sylvia Ashton-Warner. Finally I discuss how polemics might be countered in education.

Effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide and temperature on soil respiration in a boreal forest using δ13C as a labeling tool

We describe tools for automatic identification and classification of diatoms that compare photographs with other photographs and drawings, via a model. Identification of diatoms, i.e. assigning a new specimen to one of the known species, has applications in many disciplines, including ecology, palaeoecology and forensic science. The model we build represents life cycle and natural variation of both shape and texture over multiple diatom species, derived automatically from photographs and/or drawings. The model can be used to automatically produce drawings of diatoms at any stage of their life cycle development. Similar drawings are traditionally used for diatom identification, and encapsulate visually salient diatom features. In this article, we describe the methods used for analysis of photographs and drawings, present our model of diatom shape and texture variation, and finish with results of identification experiments using photographs and drawings as well as a detailed evaluation.