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The radiation effects on the human populations living in regions distant from the sites of nuclear explosions that took place in the middle of the previous century are analyzed. The statistical modelling was performed to study the occurrence frequency of abnormal lymphocyte cells among the proliferated ones in the blood of individuals living in the Yamalo-Nenets autonomous district (North Siberia), and settlements in Maloe Goloustnoe and Listvyanka (Pribaikal’e). Four generations of individuals were tested. It was shown that the geometric model component corresponds to the individuals with bad activated lymphocyte cells, lymphocyte pool depletion, and increased mortality, and the Poisson model means accumulation of abnormal cells. The Poisson component was only revealed in younger generations and can be interpreted as “effect of youth.” The worst situation is observed in the Northern population, which can be expected due to Northern permafrost and the traditional food chain of “lichen-reindeer-man”. The influence of the radiochemical industry on the occurrence of multi-aberrant cells in the blood of its workers and the inhabitants of the town in which it operates was studied by the statistical modelling, with elevated chromosomal instability being found. We conclude that chromosomal instability induced by nuclear test fallout continued for four generations. It was shown that the Poisson sample mean decreased very slowly across a generation which disputes the opinion that reduction of cellular instability in youngsters in the previous investigations was based on the averaged values. In addition, aging and extreme conditions increase the risks of chromosomal instability and mortality.

Among the environmental radioisotopes, tritium is the most attractive to those researchers who are studying the principles of water circulation in nature . It is a constituent of water molecules and, therefore, is a perfect water tracer . The interest in application of tritium for hydrological and meteorological purposes was increased greatly during the period of thermonuclear tests in 1953–1962, and also subsequently when a large amount of this artificially produced isotope had been injected into the atmosphere. The bomb-tritium, injected into the atmosphere by installments after each nuclear test , is a kind of fixed time mark of water involved in water cycling .

A little more than 30 years ago, in October 1980, China conducted its last nuclear test explosion in the atmosphere. This marked the end of atmospheric testing by all countries. The United Kingdom, United States, and Soviet Union, as depositories, had already signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) in 1963, which banned explosions in the atmosphere, in space, and under water. France, the fourth country that conducted atmospheric tests, ended its testing in the atmosphere in 1974. A total of 517 nuclear explosions were carried out in the atmosphere: United Kingdom 21, China 22, France 50, United States 210, and Soviet Union 214. As noted in Chapter 1, the PTBT contains no verification provisions. There might be several reasons for that: explosions in the atmosphere are generally easy to detect, and national monitoring equipment, such as for atmospheric radionuclide surveillance, was already available and operational at the time the treaty was signed. The United States launched its satellite-based Vela project in 1963 to monitor atmospheric nuclear explosions, as discussed under national technical means (NTM) below. The three depositories of the PTBT were also ready to move testing underground to reduce radioactive fall-out and thereby also the information that other states might obtain from analyzing the fall-out.

Development and testing of weapons of mass destruction may result in irreversible environmental changes resulting in high social risk and negative effects on human health. The former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site (STS) is a sorrowful monument of the Cold War. Nuclear tests at STS inflicted numerous economic, social and ecological problems on Kazakhstan. In the framework of the NATO “Science for Peace Program,” about 1,400 km2 of the STS have been investigated. According to the results of the Semirad project, the most contaminated area of the southeastern part of the STS is two craters, Telkem-1 and Telkem-2, formed by nuclear explosions. These craters are contaminated with the fission products, cesium-137 and strontium-90, and with components of nuclear fuel, plutonium-239 and americium-241, and the activation product, europium-154. The considerable migration of radionuclides in the 40 years since the tests were conducted was not detected. The calculated effective dose for adults from radionuclides at the Telkem craters is approximately 7 mSv. In the northern part of the STS (Semirad 2 project) the most contaminated sites are located close to the area of radiological dispersion device tests. Annual effective doses from plutonium-239 and strontium-90 can reach over 8 mSv. There is no possibility to detect the dose, largely from micron-sized “hot particles” of high radioactivity spread across the STS territory. The STS is a unique scientific preserve where scientists from all over the world are welcome to conduct research. The Republic of Kazakhstan abandoned its nuclear arsenal and opened the path to the international community to a world free of nuclear weapons.

On 10 September 1996, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which prohibits all nuclear test explosions in any environment. This treaty was opened for signature on 24 September 1996, in New York and will enter into force after it has been ratified by 44 States, which have been identified in Annex 2 of the Treaty as having nuclear capabilities. As of 2 July 2004, 115 (67%) of the 172 Signatory States of the CTBT (among the 194 UN Member States) have ratified the Treaty. From the 44 States of Annex 2, 41 (93%) have signed the Treaty, with more than two thirds, or 32 (73%), also having completed ratification. The Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) with its Preparatory Commission (PrepCom) was established as an international organization by the States Signatories to the Treaty on 19 November 1996. It consists of the policy-making organs of the PrepCom plenary body in conjunction with three working and advisory groups and the Provisional Technical Secretariat (PTS). The PTS started its work in Vienna, Austria in March 1997 and consists, besides administrative and legal divisions, of three technical divisions: the International Monitoring System (IMS), the International Data Center (IDC), and the On-Site Inspection (OSI) division. The IMS – division major responsibilities include the installation, operation and maintenance of the 337 monitoring facilities specified in the Protocol to the Treaty, comprising 321 monitoring stations and 16 radionuclide laboratories.

In the paper there are presented results of investigation of concentrations of plutonium and americium in soil of some test locations of the “Opytnoe Pole”, SNTS. Plutonium and americium are dominating sources of a radionuclide contamination at places there are attributed neighborhoods of test locations: “P-2”,”P-6” and “P-7”. These locations are at distances of (2÷3) km with each other.

It is discussed experimental data on study of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site soils by electron spin resonance method. The initial results and a perspective on the most effective directions for future investigations have considered. It is noted, that one should pay a necessary attention to this new approach in nuclear weapon tests consequences estimation.

To assess the external exposures that were likely received in villages near the Semipalantinsk nuclear test site in Kazakhstan, a dosimetry method consistent with available data is necessary. This paper presents calculations to estimate the integral external exposure by using two approaches: 1) historical exposure rate data, and 2) contemporary measurements of 137Cs inventory in the soil. The input data and principal assumptions are discussed as well as estimates of integral exposure received in the village of Dolon as a result of a test conducted in August 1949. The estimated exposures measured by both methods were substantially less than those reported in the literature.

Since 1946, large-scale, weapons of mass destruction tests have taken place in Kazakhstan. The Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site (SNTS) is the area where the highest number of nuclear weapon tests took place; about 470 nuclear explosions were conducted there over a period of 40 years.

This paper presents a description of the specifics of the complex techniques used at the Kazakhstan National Nuclear Centre Institute of Nuclear Physics (KNNC INP) to solve the different problems connected with the investigation and radioecological situation at the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site (SNTS). The results of applying these techniques are presented.

There are several sources of man-made radioactivity in Kazakhstan, including uranium ore mining and processing as well as the consequences of nuclear bomb explosions. The issue of radioactive contamination of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site (SNTS) has been discussed. Our task now is to evaluate the health risk to people from these kinds of contamination.

A database allowing automatic access to available and arriving data on the radioecological situation in the territory of the former Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site (SNTS) has been designed at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the National Nuclear Centre of the Republic of Kazakhstan. This database will make it possible to accumulate, systematise, and computerise data on the radioactive contamination of this territory. This paper presents the current condition of the database. This database should not be considered as a final system since new data and capabilities for data analysis will be modified and optimised.

The radioactive products (RPs) present within the areas of atmospheric nuclear testing in the territory of the Experimental Field and within the areas of radioactive fallout create a complicated radiation situation at the Semipalatinsk Test Site (STS) that has evolved over time. By virtue of their generation, RPs vary from several microns to 10 cm. By virtue of their size, powdery fractions of radioactive products are capable of being resuspended by the wind and transported far away from the place of origin. The areas with a 137Cs contamination level higher than 1 Ci per km2 occupy about 0.5% of the total STS area. The total 137Cs activity is estimated at 3000 Ci. The total 90Sr activity is estimated at less than 2500 Ci [1, 2].

This report presents the results of work carried out at the Opytnoe Pole, the mountain massif Degelen location of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site. This work has resulted in conclusions about the characteristics of the spreading of radionuclides from air and ground nuclear explosions. Conclusions have also been reached about the level of contamination of nearby areas of tunnels, about the localisation and migration capabilities of radionuclides, and about the fractions of distribution of these radionuclides in soil.

Environmental problems have become a constant focus of public concern. Among many urgent issues such as global warming and depletion of the ozone layer, radioactive contamination is of special concern in Russia and elsewhere. The use of atomic energy for economic and military purposes has resulted in radioactive environmental contamination that is a direct threat both to the natural environment and to the health and safety of people. Of particular concern are contaminated territories near nuclear test sites, in areas around mining enterprises, and around conversion and storage sites, as well as regions of emergency contamination near atomic energy stations.

This paper describes the phenomenology of nuclear explosions and technologies for their detection as relevant to On-Site Inspection (OSI) for a comprehensive test-ban (CTB). Our experience with the US nuclear test program which has been primarily carried out at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) and in the Pacific Ocean. The goals of OSI are to resolve ambiguous events, reduce uncertainty, deter attempts at evasion, and provide responsive and technically competent means of confirming the occurrence of a nuclear explosion should deterrence fail. These goals would include finding evidence of an evasive nuclear explosion or evidence that the event was non-nuclear, such as an earthquake or large chemical explosion.

Since 1979 the United States Department of Energy (DOE) has carried out a research and development program examining the utility of various “atmospheric methods” for the detection and monitoring of nuclear explosions. “Atmospheric methods” are detection technologies which sense the disturbances in the air which result from an atmospheric explosion and/or the ground motion above a nuclear explosion buried in the ground. This work was motivated by the understanding in 1979 that, for a comprehensive test ban, there would be many problems that seismic monitoring alone would not be able to address (in particular various evasion scenarios). There was also the desire to seek out other detection methodologies to fulfill the generally accepted idea that dual phenomenology should yield more information than any single detection phenomena.

With the anticipated completion of multilateral comprehensive nuclear test ban and nonproliferation treaties in the near future, it is essential for the monitoring efforts that multidisciplinary information on a given region is readily available and accessible in a digital, on-line format via electronic networks for use by concerned researchers and decision makers.

Neutron Radiography is presently being performed on a routine production basis. The neutron source is the General Electric designed and constructed Nuclear Test Reactor, a 100 kw (t) graphite-moderated and-reflected, light-water-cooled, thermal reactor at the Pleasanton, California, U.S.A., Vallecitos Nuclear Center.