Search

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, located in the central north Pacific, on the south of Hawaii Island, contains two of the world’s most active and accessible volcanoes, Kilauea and Mauna Loa, where ongoing geological processes are easily observed. It shows the most recent activity in the continuing process of changing the Hawaiian Archipelago. The park is an example of island building through volcanic processes. Volcanic eruptions create a constantly changing landscape in the park, and the lava flows reveal unexpected geological formations. Mauna Loa, measured from the ocean floor, is the greatest volcanic mass on Earth. Rare birds can also be found, and there are forests of giant ferns.

Macquarie Island lies 1500 km southeast of Tasmania, halfway between Australia and the Antarctic continent. It is the only place on Earth where rocks from the Earth’s mantle are being actively exposed above sea level. Its unique exposures include active faults, examples of pillow basalts and other extrusive rocks, all geological evidence for seafloor spreading, and continental drift. It provides a unique opportunity to study, in detail, geological features and processes of oceanic crust formation and plate boundary dynamics. In addition, its remote and windswept landscape of steep escarpments, lakes, and dramatic changes in vegetation provides an outstanding spectacle of wild, natural beauty complemented by vast congregations of wildlife.

The Aeolian Archipelago lies in the Tyrrhenian Sea between Italy and Sicily. It consists of seven main islands, all steep-sided volcanoes either active or dormant, with six offshore islets. The volcanic landforms represent classic features of two of the six types of volcanic eruptions, the “Vulcanian” and the “Strombolian,” with a history of volcanic island building and destruction and ongoing volcanic phenomena. The easily accessible occurrence within a small area of so many volcanic processes and landforms provides a natural museum and study site. The islands have been well studied, documented, and monitored since the eighteenth century and continue to provide a rich field for volcanological studies and related geomorphology.

Dust particles can consist of either natural soil-borne particles or of particulate matter from human activities, or both of them. Particulate matter is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets consisting of soil or dust particles, metals, organic chemicals, and acids. Naturally generated particles consist of weathered rock materials, dryland soil and sediment materials, biogenic fibres and residues from forest fires, and ash developed during volcanic eruptions. World dust emissions from drylands amount to about 5 billion Mg per year. Dominant dust sources around the world are almost wholly in or adjacent to the great drylands of the northern hemisphere. The greatest of these includes a large belt from the western Sahara to the Yellow Sea, across North Africa, the Middle East, northwest India, and central and eastern Asia. Saharan dust, driven by the northeast trade winds, takes about a week to cross the Atlantic Ocean, reaching northeastern South America the Caribbean, Central America, and the southeastern USA. The mid latitude deserts of Asia are a source of substantial airborne dust, especially during spring and early summer. Mongolia and the Tarim Basin-Taklamakan Desert are the two major dust sources of China. They are also of worldwide importance, as fine dusts from these regions have been traced to North America, Greenland and Europe. Other notable sources of dusts include the Great Basin of the USA and, in the southern hemisphere, central and northern Argentina, parts of southern Africa and East-central Australia. Former lake basins are major sources of fine, readily wind-entrained mineral dusts, which may include salts and elevated levels of toxic elements. For example, the Bodele depression in Chad (North Africa) and the numerous lake depressions in central Asia (e.g. Aral Sea region) and northern China are major dust sources of global significance. Sea spray produces aerosols containing particles that are commonly of salt, but can also contain radionuclides.

Lessons learned from sites where CO2 has naturally been stored for long geologic periods of time provides valuable information for assessing proposed anthropogenic storage sites. This chapter discusses the natural CO2 storage analogue sites and looks at them worldwide to determine which geological characteristics are preferable for natural CO2 storage and which are not. Following this, an approach is presented based on geomechanical facies, for a comparative assessment of storage sites, accounting for features observed in the natural analogue sites. Finally, a number of anthropogenic storage sites are classified according to the characterization criteria and a detailed description of a number of natural and anthropogenic storage sites are presented.

Estuarine environments potentially provide excellent geological archives and the two radioactive isotopes 210Pb and 137Cs can be used to date the most recent past, under ideal circumstances as far back as 120–150 years. However, some obvious (and some less obvious) requirements need to be fulfilled for the dating-methods to be applicable and estuaries are often challenging environments in this respect. This chapter discusses some of the most common problems and includes suggestions on prudent approaches which should be considered when evaluating the applicability of the two dating methods and when calculating chronologies. The problems include among others sediment mixing, grain size affinity, post depositional mixing and choice of dating model. The discussion is illustrated with examples from tidal flat, salt marsh and fjord sediments from temperate settings but the problems are universal and should be equally relevant for estuarine settings in other climatic zones.

Understanding the history of contamination at a site may provide useful information to interpret past conditions. While organic compounds, such as pesticides, may behave quite differently in the environment compared to inorganic substances, such as metals, one common feature is that for different reasons, sediments often act as a common sink. In this sense sites with a history of deposition and little reworking are of interest to both the palaeo-environmental scientists and pollution scientists. Estuaries are often areas of significant deposition and are attractive to the historical study of anthropogenic inputs, however, sediments are also subject to a wide range of physicochemical conditions (from fresh to marine water) that fluctuate both in space and time. Changing water and sediment geochemistry influences metal binding capacity and flocculation of fine particles and for these reasons estuaries are challenging for the pollution scientist. However, methods of sediment characterization, sample preparation, and analysis have been developed over time to help understand the geochemistry that influences sources and sinks of contaminants, and their pathways through the environment. This chapter provides an extensive review of sediment contaminant characterization, including the sources, pathways and fate of contaminants in estuaries. It details analytical procedures and explores considerations when interpreting results. It has a focus on Australian estuaries but is relevant to estuaries around the world. The main aims of this review were to provide multidisciplinary researchers with a tool to further their inquiry and to encourage further studies of pollution/contamination in estuaries.

Radiocarbon (14C) is a radioactive cosmogenic isotope continuously produced in the upper atmosphere where it rapidly oxidises to 14CO2. As 14CO2, 14C enters the global carbon cycle and is incorporated into living organisms which can be radiocarbon dated following death. Radiocarbon is among the most common radiometric methods used to provide age estimates some 40–50,000 years back in time. Here, a review of the radiocarbon method covering commonly encountered problems in estuarine environments is given. Emphasis will be on methodological procedures concerning how to estimate the 14C reservoir age in these environments, including how reliably error estimates can be calculated. Subsequently, three case studies are presented, providing a short overview of investigations of 14C reservoir age variability in estuarine environments.

Declining calcification and accelerating sea-level rise have brought us ever closer to the point where coral reefs may not be able to keep pace. Even if this is insufficient to change reef-community structure or totally overtop low reef islands in the twenty-first century, the impacts on reefs and the organisms that depend on them will still be profound. Patterns of sea-level rise have varied spatially in the past due to both local tectonics and regional crustal responses to deglaciation. The result has been regionally disparate sea-level histories that complicate our understanding of the links between past sea level and reef development.

The chapter presents the characteristics of karst, karst hydrology, mor‑phology and typology. In the hydrological overview, karst water zones are identified and described; surface karst features (karren, dolines, poljes, etc.) are defined broken down to their main varieties with their brief characterisation. The main genetic types of caves are presented. Karst types are identified according to their geological conditions (such as covering, structure), and then the types by hydrology and cover are described. In the classification by climatic environment, tundra, temperate, mediterranean, tropical and high-mountain (glacio)karst are identified and described.

The following is a brief introduction to the development of karst conditions from deposition to the variety of post-depositional processes that have created what we see today. This is a very broad topic and is specific to the area in which it occurs as well as the maturity of the process. This includes the types of soluble rock, rates of dissolution and geomorphic processes that may affect the dissolution process. The benefit of this information lies in the ability to understand what karst conditions may exist or be expected at a particular site. Often the various geologic settings provide clues as the type, depth, shape or relationship of expected karst features that may be present.

To the general public it seems a rather obvious fact that if the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland melted, sea level would rise. In fact, there is wide-spread concern that global warming of the Earth might induce melt of the present-day large ice sheets and thereby induce a global sea-level rise, leading to floodings of lowlands. Although the link between ice melt and sea-level rise might seem obvious, the relation between ice mass changes and sea-level variations is more complicated. It might sound strange when one first hears about it, but ice melt could actually induce a sea-level drop at some places on the Earth’s surface. And perhaps it is even more surprising that this has been known for more than a century.

The Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro is one of the most important Brazilian morphological features, both in terms of its geological and geomorphological evolution as well as considering its historical importance to the development of Brazil. The existing morphological contrast, varying from mountain escarpments , hills, fluvial, and marine coastal plain s, beaches, and lagoons, results from a complex evolution that imprinted in the landscape an intriguing diverse morphology which constitutes a highly attractive touristic natural scenario that is well known internationally. Its geological and geomorphological history is related to the Paleogene extensional faults and alkaline magmatism within the Guanabara Graben that was filled by Cenozoic continental and/or fluviomarine sediments. In this landscape, the use of natural resources has constrained human occupation for more than 500 years. It was only in the 2000s that improved environmental consciousness promoted measures toward minimizing environmental degradation processes.

The Southern Serra do Espinhaco (Serra do Espinhaco Meridional—SdEM) is the meridional portion of the most extensive and continuous Precambrian orogenic belt of the South American Platform. The SdEM is an imposing geomorphological and geological unit and one of the most striking geographical structures of the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. The SdEM has an important role in the separation of drainage basins and the individualization of climate, biomes, and landscapes. The result of the long temporal combination of a diverse lithostructural context and morphogenetic agent action, the SdEM stands out for its biological wealth and the scenic beauty of its landscapes, which are marked by quartzite scarps, canyons, and crystalline water rivers with frequent waterfalls. Human occupation, which has been present since prehistoric times but has intensified since the colonial period due to exploration for precious stones, has resulted in a rich historical and cultural asset that enhances its physical environment and makes the SdEM one of the most common tourist destinations in Brazil.

There is multiple evidence for dramatic ecosystem degradation after the arrival of man in Iceland about 870 AD. The woodlands and shrublands were nearly destroyed with massive soil erosion and degradation of the surviving vegetated systems. An attempt is made to introduce the various research efforts and methods from many scientific disciplines on the anthropogenic impacts on Icelandic ecosystems . Aeolian sedimentation rates are commonly employed, but need to be applied with caution. There is a large difference in the resilience and stability of the systems, with thinner (less aeolian deposition) and finer-textured soils far from aeolian sources and volcanoes, which are more resistant to the degradation processes than thick coarse soils. These areas also have a large extent of relatively resilient wetlands and are presently with more vegetation cover than the active volcanic zone. Thick coarse-textured soils with coarse tephra layers near active aeolian sources and volcanoes have been subjected to massive erosion, leaving barren deserts behind in many areas. Land use reduced the stability and resilience of these systems to disturbances such as the cold spells of the Middle Ages and intermittent volcanic eruptions. Elevation is an important factor that reduces the resilience of ecosystems to land use. Soil erosion has been mapped for all of Iceland, showing both the continuous severity of the problem, but also vast differences between the different regions, soil types, and ecosystems in terms of erosion problems. Land literacy is important in recognizing land degradation problems. A system for assessing the condition of Icelandic ecosystem is introduced. Revegetation and ecosystem restoration activities are an important part of environmental conservation efforts in Iceland, with many examples of successful projects. Iceland boasts one of the oldest Soil Conservation Agencies in the world (established 1907). Much of the destroyed systems can be restored back to full potential with time, but protection from grazing and facilitation by nitrogen inputs through direct applications and biological activity (including biological soil crusts) are important.

The soils of Iceland are separated based into four major categories according to the Icelandic classification scheme used in this publication: Andosols, Histosols , Vitrisols , and other soils. Andosols are separated into Brown Andosols, Gleyic Andosols , and Histic Andosols , based on carbon content and drainage . The Vitrisols are the soils of the barren areas and are characterized by vitric materials of low organic and allophane content and include Sandy, Cambic, and Pumice Vitrisols. Aeolian sedimentation is a major factor in shaping the type of soils. Soils far from aeolian sources tend to be rich in organic matter, with Histosols in poorly drained areas and allophane rich Brown Andosols at freely drained sites. Soils close to the aeolian sources are often coarse, and wetland soils are defined as Gleyic Andosols with OC 20 % C) are not common, in spite of extensive wetlands , and are only found far from aeolian sources. The Icelandic Andosols often have many distinct tephra layers, especially soils close to the active volcanic systems . Vitrisols, andic soils of the barren surfaces, cover more than 40 % of Iceland, but their characteristics are chiefly defined by the geology and geomorphology of each area. Sandy Vitrisols are abundant, and even though the majority of the soil materials are volcanic ash with low amount of allophane or organic matter, they still qualify as Andisols (Soil Taxonomy) or Andosols (WRB) under the major international classification systems.

High mountain regions may be perceived as areas of high environmental quality, yet many contaminants are ubiquitous on the planet through long-range atmospheric transportation. Mountain lake sediments record and archive how this global contamination is proceeding and have developed throughout history, particularly since rapid industrialization in the 1950s. Action against diffuse atmospheric contamination transported far away from the sources requires the development of national and international protocols, which must be based on reliable scientific evidence. Research on mountain lake sediments aims to provide long-term references, models for interpretation of results, and sound understanding of the mechanisms that lie behind the observed patterns of contamination. Mountains offer an excellent setting for environmental research because short distances may provide marked physical gradients (e.g., air temperature), and ecosystems are relatively amenable to observation and modelling. The lake sediment contributions are important complements to other observational approaches used in global change research. This chapter focuses on trace metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organohalogen compounds (OHCs). After a short introduction regarding contaminants and the several operative ways to examine the sediment archive, the main features of contaminant distribution in mountain lake sediments are described, followed by a section on the understanding of the processes behind the patterns (e.g., atmospheric transport, catchment interactions, air-water exchange, water column dynamics and eventual sediment archiving), and finishes with a section on biological assessment.

Located in the central-south region of Brazil (State of Minas Gerais), ‘Quadrilatero Ferrifero’ is a region of immense historical, economic and cultural significance for Brazil. This region is also characterised by its beautiful mountain scenery and unique biodiversity, thus attributing their existence to a complex lithology and a rich geotectonic framework. Therefore, Quadrilatero Ferrifero is an excellent example of how lithostructure can create and scale a beautiful, rich and varied landscape, despite its location in a region of tropical and humid climate.

The extraction of mineral resources has been occurring for millennia in both the Old and New Worlds. Lake sediments can archive the environmental legacy of these preindustrial activities, offering an independent method for understanding the magnitude and spatial extent of metal pollution through time. A number of geochemical records of past metal pollution within lake sediments have now been completed across especially Europe and the South American Andes, revealing histories of metal pollution that extend back over millennia. The use of paleolimnological techniques is refining our understanding of spatial and temporal differences in mineral resource extractions and use, and offers the opportunity to understand the degree to which human activities have mobilized metals from geologic stores into the biosphere.

Coral reefs are among the most beautiful, diverse and fascinating ecosystems in the modern oceans. For anyone intrigued by reefs, their geologic history is a never-ending mystery series, complete with paradoxes to unravel and mass “murders” to solve given only partial texts and enigmatic clues. Limestones not only record much of the history of life on Earth, they are a major reason why life occurs on Earth! Moreover, they “go missing” at catastrophic events that, on several occasions, caused extinctions of more than half of all multicellular species. The production and preservation of reef limestones is intimately connected to the Earth’s biogeochemical cycles, especially of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus. Continental collisions, changes in sea-floor spreading rates, massive meteor impacts, and glacial-interglacial cycles with resulting changes in sea level, are all subplots in the history of reefs. The evolution of photosynthesis that triggered the first global “pollution” event, the escalation of predation as indicated by increasing prevalence of shells, and the ubiquitous and repeated development of mutualistic symbioses, provide analogies to modern environmental challenges. The Earth’s biogeochemical cycles, which have evolved over more than 4,000 million years, have been profoundly disrupted by human activities. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, for example, has increased more over the past 200 years than it did between glacial advances and retreats. Within this century, atmospheric CO2 concentrations will rise to levels comparable to those 40–50 million years ago. The records preserved in limestones can provide scientists and policy makers with insights into likely consequences of human activities for the future not only of reefs, but of the diversity of ecosystems on Earth.

Compared with the erosive force of moving glaciers and flowing rivers, wind seems to be a less effective agent when it comes to the evolution of landscapes and the generation of landforms. While this idea may be true for the destructive aeolian process of deflation and its resulting landforms, the depositional aeolian processes such as dune formation are responsible for a remarkable variety of important (large and small) landforms that characterize wide regions on Earth. Parabolic coastal dunes, migrating barchan dunes and sand mountains such as the enormous star dunes are just a few examples that can be easily identified with Google Earth. Erosive aeolian landforms such as yardangs also characterize large parts of deserts and they are shaped by the corrasive power of saltating sand grains over long periods of time.

The ability of soils to produce more and more foods for mankind and for animals kept by mankind is not limitless, and the increase rate of this production appears slower than the rise of the number of people on our planet Earth. When the two types of increase are plotted versus future time, the two curves shall eventually cross each other. See Fig. 14.1.

This chapter considers applications of micro-XRF scanning in fluvial depositional environments and presents case-studies from Britain and Ireland in three key river management areas: flood reconstruction; pollution and provenance mapping; and floodplain sediment dynamics. Although fluvial sediment archives are typically shorter and more fragmented than marine and lake sediment records, they do offer significant palaeoenvironmental potential, not least because of the sensitivity of river systems to environmental change. A major consideration in micro-XRF analysis, however, is the continuity and heterogeneity of alluvial sediments and the integrity of accretionary records once they have been subject to post-depositional processes, such as human disturbance and pedogenesis. Thus far, micro-XRF applications in fluvial environments have been limited. One research area currently being developed is the field of flood reconstruction, where elements and, in particular, element ratios (e.g. Zr/Rb, Zr/Ti) can be used as particle size proxies. Micro-XRF core scanning technologies allow for analysis at the event-scale, which hitherto has been unachievable in silt and clay sediments. The potential to build and significantly enhance our understanding of longer term flooding patterns and non-stationarity, offers considerable scope for augmenting instrumental records and providing new perspectives for contemporary river management. Rapid geochemical assessment of fluvial sedimentary deposits can also be used to support floodplain reconstruction studies and pollution investigations, but greater scope will emerge from the calibration of raw XRF count data to elemental concentration. In this paper we demonstrate the potential for using micro-XRF data in sediment provenance investigations, but improvements in error quantification and propagation need to be explored. Given that river alluvium plays an integral role in the cycling and storage of contaminants, further applications in this field would be hugely beneficial for river managers. Although sediment heterogeneity places significant challenges to the quantification of micro-XRF core scanner results, there has been little attempt to establish what these limitations mean in practical terms.