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Increased father–infant physical contact may promote early paternal caregiving. This randomized controlled trial, preregistered on https://osf.io/qwe3a, tested the effects of a soft baby carrier intervention on fathers' parenting behavior and hormonal levels. Eighty first-time fathers of 2- to 4-month-old infants were randomly assigned to a baby carrier intervention group (n = 41 fathers) or a control group receiving an infant seat (n = 39 fathers). Fathers were instructed to use the baby carrier or seat for 3 weeks. Fathers' sensitive parenting behavior, involvement, salivary oxytocin and cortisol basal levels and reactivity to interacting with the infant were assessed at pre-test (on average 2 weeks before the intervention) and at post-test (on average 1 week after the intervention period ended). The results showed that the intervention did not enhance fathers' sensitive parenting or involvement. Involvement operationalized as hours spent with the infant decreased over time for fathers in the carrier condition compared to fathers in the control condition. The baby carrier intervention had no effect on fathers' basal oxytocin or cortisol levels, nor did it affect fathers' oxytocin or cortisol reactivity to interacting with their infant. Our findings indicate that 3 weeks of using a baby carrier does not have immediate beneficial effects on fathers' parenting behavior or hormonal functioning as assessed here. Future research may examine whether infant carrying has beneficial effects on the longer term or in different groups of fathers, and how fathers' infant carrying affects their infants. Highlights: We tested for the first time the effects of a soft baby carrier intervention on fathers' parenting behavior and hormones. The baby carrier intervention did not promote fathers' sensitivity or involvement. The intervention had no effects on fathers' basal hormonal levels or hormonal reactivity to interacting with their infant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Support from grandparents plays a role in mothers' perinatal mental health. However, previous research on maternal mental health has mainly focused on influences of partner support or general social support and neglected the roles of grandparents. In this narrative review and meta-analysis, the scientific evidence on the association between grandparental support and maternal perinatal mental health is reviewed. Searches in PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Scopus, and PsycINFO yielded 11 empirical studies on N = 3381 participants, reporting on 35 effect sizes. A multilevel approach to meta-analysis was applied to test the association between grandparental support and maternal mental health. The results showed a small, statistically significant association (r =.16; 95% CI: 0.09–0.25). A moderator test indicated that the association was stronger for studies reporting on support from the maternal grandmother in particular (r =.23; 95% CI: 0.06–0.29). Our findings suggest that involved grandparents, in particular mother's own mother, constitute a protective factor for the development of maternal postpartum mental health problems. These findings have clear implications for interventions. Future studies should examine whether stimulating high-quality support from grandparents is a fruitful avenue for enhancing maternal postpartum mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although clinicians typically acknowledge the importance of insecure attachment as one factor that can contribute to children's psychopathology, translating attachment theory into clinical practice has proved a challenge. By specifying some of the mechanisms through which the child's attachment develops and changes, learning theory can enhance attachment based approaches to therapy. Specifically, interventions building on operant (parent management training) and classical (exposure therapy) learning can be used to stimulate new learning that increases the child's security and confidence in the parent's availability and responsiveness. To explore the clinical application and utility of a Learning Theory of Attachment (LTA), we focus on two attachment-focused interventions: Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) and Middle Childhood Attachment-based Family Therapy (MCAT). VIPP-SD is an evidence-based parent management training designed to promote sensitive parenting and secure attachment in early childhood. MCAT is a recently developed intervention that uses exposure to stimulate secure attachment in middle childhood. LTA sheds light on the mechanisms set in train by VIPP-SD and MCAT facilitating the induction of professionals in clinical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal sensitivity and supportive discipline are important determinants of child self-regulation. Some evidence suggests that specific genetic or temperamental markers determine children's susceptibility to the impact of maternal parenting on child self-regulation. Cortisol reactivity as a susceptibility marker moderating the relation between maternal parenting and child self-regulation has not yet been studied. In this longitudinal population-based study (N = 258), the moderating role of infant cortisol stress response to the Strange Situation Procedure at age 1 was examined in the association between parenting (sensitivity and supportive discipline) at age 3 and child self-regulation at age 3 and 4. Maternal sensitivity and supportive discipline were related to child immediate and prolonged delay of gratification at age 3, and maternal sensitivity was related to working memory skills at age 4. No evidence of differential susceptibility to maternal parenting was found, based on differences in infant cortisol stress response. Highlights: Maternal sensitivity and supportive discipline relate to child immediate and prolonged delay of gratification at age 3. Maternal sensitivity is related to child working memory skills at age 4. No evidence was found for differential susceptibility to maternal parenting based on child stress reactivity. Our findings emphasize the importance of parental socialization for the development of self-regulatory functions in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A potential pathway underlying the association between prenatal exposure to maternal psychological problems and childhood externalizing problems is child self-regulation. This prospective study (N = 687) examined whether self-regulated compliance mediates the relation between maternal affective problems and hostility during pregnancy and childhood externalizing problems, and explored moderation by child polygenic risk scores for aggression and sex. Self-regulated compliance at age 3 was observed in mother–child interactions, and externalizing problems at age 6 were reported by mothers and teachers. Polygenic risk scores were calculated based on a genome-wide association study of aggressive behavior. Self-regulated compliance mediated the associations between maternal psychological problems and externalizing problems. Aggression PRS was associated with higher externalizing problems reported by mothers. No evidence was found of moderation by aggression PRS or sex. These findings support the hypothesis that maternal psychological problems during pregnancy might influence externalizing problems through early self-regulation, regardless of child genetic susceptibility or sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding if maternal depression is a predictor of infant-parent attachment classification is important to furthering knowledge about the early pathways and predictors of socio-emotional development. Yet few studies that have utilised the Strange Situation Procedure, the gold standard for measurement of infant-parent attachment, have examined antenatal depression as a predictor of attachment, and none has also included a measure of maternal trauma. This study uses data on 224 women recruited in early pregnancy and followed up until 12 months postpartum. Maternal depression was measured in pregnancy using the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM and repeat Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as well as Stressful Life Events scale across pregnancy and postpartum including items on domestic violence. A past history of trauma was measured using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Attachment was measured using the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) at 12 months postpartum. We found that maternal depression was not associated with insecure or disorganized attachment. However, a maternal history of childhood trauma and current domestic violence both predicted insecure-avoidant attachment at 12 months, whereas increased number of stressful life events prior to conception and in pregnancy was associated with insecure-resistant attachment. Neither trauma, past or current, nor depression predicted disorganized attachment. In the first study to have included measures of antenatal depression, maternal childhood trauma, and current stressful events as predictors of infant attachment measured using the SSP, we found maternal experiences of past and current trauma but not depression were significant predictors of infant-parent attachment security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Despite growing interest in the (therapeutic) use of intranasal oxytocin administration in children, the potential side-effects of intranasal oxytocin have remained largely unclear to date. The current study is the first double-blind randomized controlled trial to examine side-effects following single administration of oxytocin nasal spray in elementary school-aged children.Methods: One hundred children (8-12 years old) were randomly assigned to receive oxytocin or placebo nasal spray. We assessed side-effects by means of a standardized, drug-specific questionnaire and an open-ended question at two time points: 90 min after nasal spray administration and 24 h after administration.Results: There were no significant associations between nasal spray condition and total frequency of reported side-effects or reports of specific side-effects. Children and their mothers were unable to correctly guess nasal spray allocation, further supporting that the subjective experience of oxytocin versus placebo nasal spray effects was similar. Moreover, the majority of reported side-effects were classified as mild and ceased within 24 h after the procedure, indicating that the nasal sprays were well tolerated.Conclusion: In all, this study is the first randomized controlled trial to provide information on the safety of intranasal oxytocin administration in middle childhood. The current study suggests that single administration of intranasal oxytocin is likely safe in elementary school-aged children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Postnatal depression (PND) is common and negatively affects the mother-infant relationship; oxytocin (OT) has been found to have positive effects on parenting, although psychiatric disorders may reduce these effects. Thus, we explored the role of OT in mothers diagnosed with PND. A within-subject, randomized controlled double-blind design was used to test the effects of nasal administration of OT or placebo on sensitive caregiving. The outcome measures were perceptual and caregiving responses to prerecorded cry sounds, as well as observed maternal sensitivity. We found that in the OT condition mothers with PND were more likely to rate an infant cry as more urgent and they were more likely to indicate they would chose a harsh caregiving strategy in response. There was no effect of OT on maternal sensitive interaction with their own baby. Further research is required prior to consideration of OT administration in depressed mothers of infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unlabelled: Empirical evidence has shown that international adoptees present physical growth delays, precocious puberty, behavioral problems, and mental health referrals more often than non-adoptees. We hypothesized that the higher prevalence of (mental) health problems in adoptees is accompanied by elevated consumption of prescription drugs, including antidepressants, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medication, and medication for growth inhibition/stimulation. In an archival, population-based Dutch cohort study, data on medication use were available from the Health Care Insurance Board by Statistics Netherlands from 2006 to 2011. The Dutch population born between 1994 and 2005 and alive during the period of measurement was included (2,360,450 including 10,602 international adoptees, of which 4447 from China). Their mean age was 6.5 years at start (range 1-12 years) and 11.5 years at the end of the measurement period (range 6-17 years). Chinese female adoptees used less medication for precocious puberty (as treatment for precocious puberty; odds ratio (OR) = 0.57, effect size Cohen's d = -0.31) and contraception (OR = 0.65, d = -0.24) than non-adoptees. For both males and females, non-Chinese adoptees used more medication for ADHD than non-adoptees (males: OR = 1.22, females: OR = 1.32), but the effect was small (males: d = 0.11, females: d = 0.15).Conclusions: Adoptees in the Netherlands generally do not use more medication than their non-adopted peers.What Is Known: • Meta-analytical evidence shows that international adoptees present physical growth delays and mental health referrals more often than non-adopted controls. • With the exception of one Swedish study on ADHD medication, there is no other systematic research on medication use of international adoptees. What is New: • All differences in medication use between international adoptees in the Netherlands and non-adopted controls were below the threshold of a small effect with the exception of medication for precocious puberty, but this effect was in the opposite direction with female adoptees using less medication for precocious puberty than non-adoptees. • International adoptees in the Netherlands do not use more medication despite experiences of preadoption adversity and higher rates of mental health referrals during childhood and adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This meta-analysis reports on the effectiveness of targeted interventions focusing on child care professionals to improve child care quality, caregiver interaction skills, and child social-emotional development. Within randomized controlled trials, interventions are moderately effective in improving overall caregiver-child interactions (k = 19, Hedges' g = 0.35) and in improving child care quality on the classroom level (k = 11; Hedges' g = 0.39), the caregiver level (k = 10; Hedges' g = 0.44), and the child level (k = 6; Hedges' g = 0.26). Based on these findings, the implementation of evidence-based targeted interventions on a larger scale than currently exists may lead to better social-emotional development for children under the age of 5 years. There remains, however, an urgent need for more and larger randomized controlled trials with a solid design and high quality measures in order to shed more light on which child care components for which children are most critical in supporting children's socio-emotional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deviant physiological reactivity to infant stimuli has been suggested to underlie maladaptive parenting behavior. Our study involved 44 maltreating and 42 non-maltreating mothers. During a standardized cry paradigm, mothers listened to nine cry sounds of varying pitches. Saliva was collected at baseline, after each cry sound, and after a recovery episode. Salivary α-amylase (sAA) as a marker of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity was assayed from saliva samples. Maltreating mothers showed lower overall sAA levels and an attenuated reactivity pattern to infant crying as compared to non-maltreating mothers. No effect of type of maltreatment (neglect only vs. neglect and abuse) was found. Furthermore, positive correlations between sAA and heart rate (HR) for non-maltreating mothers differed significantly from non-significant correlations between sAA and HR for maltreating mothers. This suggests anomalous asynchrony between different aspects of the ANS in maltreating mothers. Results indicate a lack of functional autonomic (re)activity as a contributing risk factor to child maltreatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prenatal maternal psychopathology affects child development, but some children seem more vulnerable than others. Genetic variance in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis genes may influence the effect of prenatal maternal psychological symptoms on child emotional and behavioral problems. This hypothesis was tested in the Generation R Study, a population-based cohort from fetal life onward. In total, 1727 children of Northern European descent and their mothers participated in this study and were genotyped for variants in the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene (rs6189/rs6190, rs10052957, rs41423247, rs6195, and rs6198) and the FK506-binding protein 5 (FKBP5) gene (rs1360780). Prenatal maternal psychological symptoms were assessed at 20 weeks pregnancy and child behavior was assessed by both parents at 3 years. In a subsample of 331 children, data about cortisol reactivity were available. Based on power calculations, only those genetic variants with sufficient minor allele frequencies (rs41423247, rs10052957, and rs1360780) were included in the interaction analyses. We found that variation in GR at rs41423247 moderates the effect of prenatal maternal psychological symptoms on child emotional and behavioral problems (beta 0.41, SE 0.16, p=0.009). This prenatal interaction effect was independent of mother's genotype and maternal postnatal psychopathology, and not found for prenatal psychological symptoms of the father. Moreover, the interaction between rs41423247 and prenatal psychological symptoms was also associated with decreased child cortisol reactivity (beta −2.30, p-value 0.05). These findings emphasize the potential effect of prenatal gene-environment interaction, and give insight in possible mechanisms accounting for children's individual vulnerability to develop emotional and behavioral problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infant laughter is a rewarding experience. It activates neural reward circuits and promotes parental proximity and care, thus facilitating parent-infant attachment. The neuropeptide oxytocin might enhance the incentive salience of infant laughter by modulating neural circuits related to the perception of infant cues. In a randomized controlled trial with functional magnetic resonance imaging we investigated the influence of intranasally administered oxytocin on functional brain connectivity in response to infant laughter. Blood oxygenation level-dependent responses to infant laughter were measured in 22 nulliparous women who were administered oxytocin and 20 nulliparous women who were administered a placebo. Elevated oxytocin levels reduced activation in the amygdala during infant laughter and enhanced functional connectivity between the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate, the hippocampus, the precuneus, the supramarginal gyri, and the middle temporal gyrus. Increased functional connectivity between the amygdala and regions involved in emotion regulation may reduce negative emotional arousal while enhancing the incentive salience of the infant laughter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examining family stress and parenting efficacy in relation to child externalizing problems in immigrant families. In this study, we compared the levels of family stress, parenting efficacy, and toddler externalizing behaviors in Dutch ( n = 175) and second-generation Turkish immigrant families ( n = 175) living in the Netherlands. In addition, the influence of Turkish mothers’ acculturation on toddler externalizing behaviors and its association with perceived stress and efficacy were examined. Turkish mothers reported higher levels of daily stress and marital discord than Dutch mothers, but did not differ in perceptions of parenting efficacy and children’s externalizing behaviors. The associations between child and family variables were similar in the Dutch and the Turkish groups, as more family stress was related to more externalizing behaviors in toddlers. Low parenting efficacy was the most important predictor of child externalizing behaviors in both groups. Acculturation of Turkish mothers was not associated with family and child variables, and did not moderate the association between family variables and child externalizing behaviors. However, emotional connectedness to the Turkish culture was related to less daily stress and fewer marital problems. The results support the no-group differences hypothesis and also imply that cultural maintenance may be adaptive for parental well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using an accelerated longitudinal design, the development of externalizing problems from age 2 to 5 years was investigated in relation to maternal psychopathology, maternal parenting, gender, child temperament, and the presence of siblings. The sample consisted of 150 children selected at age 2–3 years for having high levels of externalizing problems. Parenting was measured using observational methods, and maternal reports were used for the other variables. Overall, mean levels of externalizing problems decreased over time, and higher initial levels (intercept) were related to a stronger decrease (negative slope) in externalizing problems. Results showed that higher levels of maternal psychopathology were related to less decrease in early childhood externalizing problems. Parental sensitive behavior predicted a stronger decrease in externalizing problems, but only for children with difficult temperaments. A stronger decrease of externalizing problems in children with older siblings also pertained only to children with difficult temperaments. Thus, temperamentally difficult children appear to be more susceptible to environmental influences on the development of externalizing behaviors. Our results indicate that the role of siblings in early childhood externalizing problems deserves more research attention, and that intervention efforts need to take into account temperamental differences in children’s susceptibility to environmental influences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Play helps to develop social skills. Children with autism show deviances in their play behavior that may be associated with delays in their social development. In this study, we investigated manipulative, functional and symbolic play behavior of toddlers with and without autism (mean age: 26.45, SD 5.63). The results showed that the quality of interaction between the child and the caregiver was related to the development of play behavior. In particular, security of attachment was related to better play behavior. When the developmental level of the child is taken into account, the attachment relationship of the child with the caregiver at this young age is a better predictor of the level of play behavior than the child's disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deficits in Joint Attention (JA) may be one of the earliest signs of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). In this longitudinal study we investigated several types of JA behaviors at the age of 24 and 42 months, and their development over time. Eleven children with ASD, 10 children with other developmental disorders, and eight children without a developmental disorder participated. It was found that children with ASD showed significantly less JA at the age of 24 months. At this age, the various types of JA (Basic Joint Attention, Associated Joint Attention, Joint Visual Attention) were correlated with developmental level and number of autistic characteristics. However, at the age of 42 months, these associations were absent. Although children with ASD may show less JA at the age of 24 months compared to other groups of children, by the age of 42 months they reach about the same level of JA, except for joint visual attention. In fact, at both ages, children with ASD differed consistently only on JVA from the other groups. JVA may be a core component of an early screening device for ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Joint attention is often referred to as a triadic relation between self, other and object. Young children with autism show deficiencies in the use of joint attention behaviors. Individual differences may be expected, and they may be determined by the children's cognitive development or the characteristics of the relationship of the child with the caregiver. Although most joint attention skills develop under the age of three, most studies of joint attention in children with autism involved children older than 3 years of age, due to difficulties in diagnosing autism under this age. In this study we investigated joint attention behaviors of 78 young children (mean age 25.7 months, SD 6.1) with autism spectrum disorders (n = 20), other developmental delays (n = 18), and typically developing children (n = 40). Following the pertinent literature and confirmed by factor analysis, two types of joint attention behaviors were distinguished, Basic Joint Attention (BJA) and Associated Joint Attention (AJA). We found that cognitive delays and autistic symptoms-but not attachment insecurity or disorganization-were related to less joint attention. Already at the age of 2 years, children with more autistic symptoms show less joint attention, even after controlling for developmental level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have severe and pervasive impairments in the development of social interaction, which may affect the attachment relationship with their parents and may have an impact on parenting. In the current investigation 89 families with young children (mean age 26.5 months) were involved, who were diagnosed as ASD, mentally retarded (MR), or language delayed (LD), or part of a non-clinical comparison group. Attachment security was observed with the Brief Attachment Screening Questionnaire, and several parental self-report questionnaires assessed the parenting style, parental efficacy, parental experiences of daily hassles, social support, and psychological problems. Children with ASD were rated as less secure compared to the other clinical and normal comparison groups. Parents of non-clinical children reported higher levels of authoritative parenting than parents in the ASD group and in the total clinical group, and they also received less social support. Parents of children with ASD coped remarkably well with the challenges of raising a child with ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attachment was assessed in toddlers with Autistic Disorder ( n = 20), Pervasive Developmental Disorder ( n = 14), Mental Retardation ( n = 12), Language Development Disorder ( n = 16), and a non-clinical comparison group ( n = 18), using the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). Children in the clinical groups were more often disorganized and less often securely attached. Severity of autism was associated with more attachment insecurity, and lower developmental level increased the chance for disorganized attachment. Attachment disorganization was related to increased heart rate during the SSP. Controlling for basal cortisol and developmental level, more autistic symptoms predicted lower cortisol responses to the SSP. The findings support the importance of disorganized attachment for children with autism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "Gene-environment-wide association: emerging approaches," by Duncan Thomas in the 2010 issue.