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The influence of pulsed laser treatment mode parameters on ablation and modification processes of Si3N4–TiC ceramics is determined. A mode of pulsed laser processing using the revealed interrelations after diamond grinding of Si3N4–TiC ceramic parts is established and recommended for practical use to ensure defective-layer removal and defect-free structure formation in the surface layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of metallographic studies into the structure of plasma coatings obtained from a mixture of high-chromium alloy cast irons and nickel-chromium alloys are presented. It is established that the structure of these high hardness coatings consists of carbides and chromium borides having a ledeburite-austenite base. When plasma spraying is followed by reflow melting, the structure of reflowed coatings becomes homogeneous and finely dispersed, resembling that of the initial powder. In plasma coatings, the distribution of elements is uniform; however, when self-fluxing coatings melt, they are redistributed. The highest wear resistance was achieved in coatings obtained via plasma spraying followed by the reflow melting of powder compositions PR-Ni70Cr17Si4B4 (23%) + PG-FBYu 1–4 (73%) + Al (4%) and plasma surfacing with the use of powder compositions PG-FBYu 1–4 (70%) + PR-Ni70Cr17Si4B4 (27%) + Ti (3%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current study, the influence of thermal ageing on evolution of microstructures in the interfacial region between solders (Sn–37Pb, Sn–3.5Ag–0.5Cu) and copper substrates was investigated. Pb-containing and Pb-free solders were reflowed on Cu substrates at 230 °C for 15 min and were isothermally aged at 100 °C for 24 h. As-reflowed Sn–Pb solder/Cu substrate interfacial region exhibited continuous and layered type of IMC at the interface, and this IMC morphology changed to scallop type with isothermal ageing. SAC solder/Cu as-reflowed samples showed continuous and needle-shaped Cu6Sn5 and Ag3Sn IMCs at the interface. However, in an isothermally aged condition, plate-shaped Cu6Sn5 and flower-shaped Ag3Sn IMCs were found inside the solder matrix. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) study showed that the thickness of Cu6Sn5 IMC was higher in reflowed Sn–Pb/Cu region than in SAC/Cu region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of solder volume and reaction time between molten solder and a metal pad at the peak temperature of reflow on the self-alignment effect have been investigated in flip chip bonding. A glass die with two different pad designs and a flame retardant-4 (FR-4) organic substrate were used. Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu and Sn-3.5Ag solders were formed on Cu-organic solderability preservation (Cu-OSP) and electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold (ENEPIG) pads on FR-4 substrates using the stencil printing method. To assess the effect of solder volume, the thickness and opening size of the stencil mask were controlled. Reflow experiments were performed at 250°C with wetting times of 40 s, 55 s, 65 s, and 75 s. After flip chip reflow soldering, the bonding areas were cross-sectioned to inspect the shape of the interconnected solder using scanning electron microscopy. The results revealed that using an insufficient solder volume on the pad was responsible for die shifts larger than 1 μm, while a sufficient solder volume on the pad and a stable solder joint shape could ensure misalignment less than 1 μm. The Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder showed a lower die shift value than the Sn-3.5Ag solder because the Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder has stronger surface tension than the Sn-3.5Ag solder. Using a longer wetting time between the solder and the pad at the peak temperature also improved the die shift value because the increased reaction time changed the interconnected solder shape between the die and substrate from concave to convex, moving the die to a more accurate position. Furthermore, the restoring forces on die self-alignment influenced the die shift value. A stronger solder surface tension and a larger volume of solder on the pad produced stronger restoring forces for die self-alignment, thereby improving the die shift value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solder joint interconnects in three-dimensional (3D) packages with package stacking configurations typically must undergo multiple reflow cycles during the assembly process. In this work, interfacial open joint failures between the bulk solder and the intermetallic compound (IMC) layer were found in Sn-Ag-Cu (SAC) solder joints connecting a small package to a large package after multiple reflow reliability tests. Systematic progressive 3D x-ray computed tomography experiments were performed on both incoming and assembled parts to reveal the initiation and evolution of the open failures in the same solder joints before and after the reliability tests. Characterization studies, including focused ion beam cross-sections, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, were conducted to determine the correlation between IMC phase transformation and failure initiation in the solder joints. A comprehensive failure mechanism, along with solution paths for the solder joint interfacial failures after multiple reflow cycles, is discussed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, lead free Sn-3.5Ag solder bumps have been deposited on Cu-filled through-silicon via (TSV) by electroplating method. The solder bumps are plated using an acidic solution composed of SnSO, HSO, AgSO, thiourea and an additive. The current density is varied from −30 to −60 mA/cm to obtain the eutectic Sn-3.5Ag solder. The copper is electroplated in TSV using an acidic solution of CuSO·5HO, HSO, HCl, and an inhibitor. The bottom-up Cu-filling in TSV is achieved by a 3-step pulse periodic reverse (PPR) electroplating. It has been observed that the eutectic Sn-3.5Ag solder is achieved at a current density of −55 mA/cm. The solder bumps are further reflowed onto TSV at 260 °C for 20 seconds, and shear strength of the formed Sn-3.5Ag/Cu-filled TSV joint is investigated. The results indicate the formation of CuSn and AgSn intermetallic compounds (IMCs) at the joint interface. It is found that with an increase of shear speed from 0.5-10 mm/s, the shear stress initially increases to a maximum, and then decreases beyond shear speed of 10 mm/s through 500 mm/s. It is shown that the ductile fracture mode gradually decreases beyond shear speed of 10 mm/s and disappears completely at 500 mm/s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starved film thickness measurements are presented in grease-lubricated point contact under pure rolling condition. The starvation process of different types of greases is recorded and analysed in detail. Results show that the film decay rates for lithium greases and SiO greases are quite similar regardless of the rolling speed. Urea grease shows strong adsorbability to the metal surface, which can be clearly observed during the test. Oil separation tests and scanning electron microscopy observations proved the differences in structure and stability of the tested grease. A close relationship between starved film thickness and oil bleeding rate is found in the present research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of a trace Al addition (0, 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1 wt. %) in the Sn-2Ag-5Bi solder alloy on wettability and intermetallic compound (IMC) formation of the alloy was investigated. The interface between the solder and a Cu(17 μm)/Ni(4 μm)/Au (0.02 μm) under bump metallized (UBM) substrate was studied. The microstructure of the bulk solder and the interface of the soldered joints was observed in a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and the thickness of the interface reaction layers was estimated. Various IMC phases were identified by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and by the electron probe micro analyzer (EPMA). The experimental results indicated that the addition of 0.01 wt. % Al in the Sn-2Ag-5Bi solder alloy significantly improved the wettability of the solder more than the other Al additions did. The IMC layer between the bulk Sn-2Ag5Bi-0.01Al solder and the Cu/Ni/Au UBM substrate was almost uniform and thinner than those between the solders containing 0, 0.05, and 0.1 wt. % Al and their respective Cu/Ni/Au UBM substrates. Furthermore, the growth rate of the IMC layer between the Sn-2Ag-5Bi-0.01Al solder and Cu/Ni/Au UBM after 1 to 10 reflow times was lower than that of the IMC layer between the Sn-2Ag-5Bi solder and Cu/Ni/Au UBM. The IMCs in the solder joint interface (e.g., NiSn) of the Sn-2Ag-5Bi-0.01Al solder were well distributed near the Bi and fine AgSn. The addition of 0.01 wt. % Al in the Sn-2Ag-5Bi solder yielded the best wetting properties for the solder and the minimum growth rate of the IMCs because it increased the nucleation rate of AgSn and uniformly segregated the Bi phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melting and solidification of SAC 305 lead-free solder joints in a wafer-level chip-scale package were examined in situ with synchrotron x-ray diffraction. The chips with balls attached (but not assembled to a circuit board) were reflowed one to three times using a temperature and time history similar to an industrial reflow process. Diffraction patterns from the same joint were collected every 0.5 s during the melting and solidification process. The solidification of the Sn phase in the solder joint occurred between 0.5 s and 1 s. During melting, most of the Sn melted in about 0.5 s, but in some cases took 2-5 s for the Sn peak to completely disappear. In one instance, the Sn peak persisted for 30 s. The AgSn peaks dissolved in about 1-2 s, but the CuSn peaks from the interface were persistent and did not change throughout the melting and solidification process. Completely different Sn crystal orientations were always developed upon resolidification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The difference in reflow characteristics between electroplated and sputtered Cu films during high-temperature high-pressure treatment was confirmed, and the basis for this difference was analyzed. Using test element groups containing a number of via holes, it was found that electroplated Cu films had much superior embedding characteristics compared with sputtered Cu films. This was confirmed by measurements of the stress-strain curves of these Cu films, which indicated that the strength at high temperature of the electroplated films was lower than that of sputtered films. Identification of lattice defects and analysis of the microstructure of these films were carried out by positron lifetime measurements and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. The results showed that a large quantity of vacancy clusters was present in the electroplated Cu films, and this increased to a maximum after isochronal annealing at 300°C. From the results, it was shown that Cu atoms in electroplated films with a large number of vacancy clusters diffuse rapidly at around 300°C, and this rapid diffusion contributes greatly to softening of the film and a promotion in reflow behavior. This study revealed that the reflow behavior of Cu films strongly depends on the presence of vacancy clusters within it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The early interfacial reaction in the Sn-3.5Ag/Cu soldering system and the system's premelting behavior were found and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry incorporated into the reflow process. The results show that the early interfacial reaction occurs by way of melting and wetting of the solder layer adjacent to the Cu substrate at a temperature nearly 4°C below the actual melting point of Sn-3.5Ag solder due to solid-state diffusion of Cu atoms into the Sn-3.5Ag binary solder. Consequently, the early interfacial reaction brings about formation of Cu-Sn intermetallic compounds (IMCs) at a temperature below the melting point of Sn-3.5Ag, and a prolonged early interfacial reaction can lead to change of the Cu-Sn IMC morphology from planar-like to scallop-like and promote excessive growth of IMCs at the interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The behavior of void growth in ultra-large-scale integration Cu interconnections has been investigated by grain-boundary diffusion simulation to confirm the effectiveness of the high-pressure reflow process for suppressing stress-induced voiding. Void growth was simulated by combining stress analysis and atomic flux analysis. The former was calculated by the finite-element method (FEM), and the latter was calculated by an unusual FEM in which grain boundaries were defined as elements. From the results of void growth analysis, we found that voids tend to disappear during the isochronal annealing step and that the void shrinkage rate can be increased by two to three times by applying pressure of 150 MPa compared with normal-pressure annealing. From the simulation results, it can be conjectured that the high-pressure reflow process is effective for eliminating voids in via holes of Cu interconnections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reflow phenomenon of Cu interconnections deposited over via holes was analyzed by viscoelastic deformation simulation using a finite-element method to clarify the embedding mechanism of Cu interconnections into via holes in a novel dual-damascene fabrication technology, which combined sputter deposition and high-pressure annealing. Cu is considered to be a viscoelastic body, and the stress distribution and deformation behavior of Cu interconnections were calculated. As a result, the deformation behavior of the Cu interconnections exhibited close agreement between the calculated and the observed values. From our series of results, we inferred that Cu interconnections are embedded into via holes by the creep deformation mechanism defined in this study during the high-pressure annealing process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interfacial reaction of Si die attachment with a high temperature lead-free solder of Zn- xSn ( x = 20 wt.%, 30 wt.% and 40 wt.%) was investigated, and the currently used high temperature lead-free solder of Au-20Sn was compared. A sound die attachment to a Cu substrate can be achieved with Zn-Sn solder. No intermetallic compound (IMC) phase was observed in the solder layer, and only primary α-Zn and Sn-Zn eutectic phases were observed. At the interface with the Si die, with a metallization of Au/Ag/Ni, an AgAuZn2, IMC layer was formed along the interface, and the Ni coating layer did not react with the solder. At the interface with the Cu substrate, CuZn5 and Cu5Zn8 IMC layers were confirmed, and their thicknesses can be controlled by soldering conditions. During multiple reflows, the growth of these IMC layers was observed, but no additional voids or cracks were observed. For more reliable die attachment, a titanium nitride (TiN) coating layer was applied to suppress the formation of Cu-Zn IMCs. The Si die attached joint on the TiN-coated Cu was quite stable during the multiple reflows, and no visible IMC phase was confirmed in the interfacial microstructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel lead-free bumping technique using an alternating electromagnetic field (AEF) was investigated. Lead-free solder bumps reflowed onto copper pads through AEF have been achieved. A comparison was conducted between the microstructures of the lead-free solder joints formed by the conventional thermal reflow and AEF reflow. Keeping the substrate temperature lower than that of the solder bumps, AEF reflow successfully created metallurgical bonding between the lead-free solders and metallizations through an interfacial intermetallic compound (IMC). The AEF reflow could be finished in several seconds, much faster than the conventional hot-air reflow. Considering the morphology of the interfacial Cu6Sn5 IMC, a shorter heating time above the melting point would be a better choice for solder joint reliability. The results show that AEF reflow is a promising localized heating soldering technique in electronic packaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cu/SnAg double-bump structure is a promising candidate for fine-pitch flip-chip applications. In this study, the interfacial reactions of Cu (60 μm)/SnAg (20 μm) double-bump flip chip assemblies with a 100 μm pitch were investigated. Two types of thermal treatments, multiple reflows and thermal aging, were performed to evaluate the thermal reliability of Cu/SnAg flip-chip assemblies on organic printed circuit boards (PCBs). After these thermal treatments, the resulting intermetallic compounds (IMCs) were identified with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the contact resistance was measured using a daisy-chain and a four-point Kelvin structure. Several types of intermetallic compounds form at the Cu column/SnAg solder interface and the SnAg solder/Ni pad interface. In the case of flip-chip samples reflowed at 250°C and 280°C, Cu6Sn5 and (Cu, Ni)6Sn5 IMCs were found at the Cu/SnAg and SnAg/Ni interfaces, respectively. In addition, an abnormal Ag3Sn phase was detected inside the SnAg solder. However, no changes were found in the electrical contact resistance in spite of severe IMC formation in the SnAg solder after five reflows. In thermally aged flip-chip samples, Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn IMCs were found at the Cu/SnAg interface, and (Cu, Ni)6Sn5 IMCs were found at the SnAg/Ni interface. However, Ag3Sn IMCs were not observed, even for longer aging times and higher temperatures. The growth of Cu3Sn IMCs at the Cu/SnAg interface was found to lead to the formation of Kirkendall voids inside the Cu3Sn IMCs and linked voids within the Cu3Sn/Cu column interfaces. These voids became more evident when the aging time and temperature increased. The contact resistance was found to be nearly unchanged after 2000 h at 125°C, but increases slightly at 150°C, and a number of Cu/SnAg joints failed after 2000 h. This failure was caused by a reduction in the contact area due to the formation of Kirkendall and linked voids at the Cu column/Cu3Sn IMC interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three Sn-rich, Au-Sn alloy solders with eutectic, hypoeutectic, and hypereutectic Sn compositions were fabricated by sequential electroplating of Au and Sn and then the dual-layer films were reflowed at 250°C. The microstructures and phase compositions of the deposited Au/Sn dual-layer film and the reflowed Sn-rich Au-Sn alloys were studied. Microhardness values of the different phases or phase zones for the reflowed alloys were also tested. Finally, two Si wafers were bonded together with the eutectic Sn-rich Au-Sn alloy solder. For as deposited Au/Sn dual-layer films, reaction between Au and Sn occurs at room temperature leading to the formation of Au5Sn, AuSn, and AuSn2 at the Au/Sn interface. After reflowing at 250°C, two phases remain, Sn and AuSn4, with the morphology and phase distribution depending on the original solder composition. In the Sn-rich, eutectic Au-Sn alloy, AuSn4 particles are distributed uniformly in the Sn matrix. In the Sn-rich hypoeutectic/ hypereutectic Au-Sn alloys, the proeutectic phase, AuSn4 (Vickers hardness, Hv 125) or Sn (Hv 14.2), is larger in size and is surrounded by the eutectic zone (Sn + AuSn4) (Hv 16.1). In all cases, the TiW adhesion and barrier layer remains intact during annealing. After reflowing at 250°C under a pressure of 13 kPa, two Si wafers are joined by the Sn-rich eutectic Au-Sn alloy solder, without crack or void formation at the Si wafer/solder interface or within the solder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fluxless solderability of pure indium on gold-coated surfaces is investigated in this study using measurements of wetting angle and joint strength. This study focuses on the effects of indium's native oxides and those which form during heat treatment. The initial oxide thicknesses are obtained by heating indium samples at various temperatures, and then, during the reflow above the melting temperature, oxidation at the interface is either allowed in open air or prevented by reflowing in an inert environment. The testing results presented include characterization of indium oxide (In2O3), the effects of indium oxide on joint strength, and the effect of hot pressing during reflow process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reflow of Sn-58Bi solder joints in a BGA package with Au/Ni/Cu pads has been performed by employing various temperature profiles, which results in the formation of (Au0.66Ni0.34)(Sn0.82Bi0.18)4 intermetallic flakes in the solder matrix. The reflow operation performed at a peak temperature of 180 °C for a melting time of 80 s gives a ball shear strength of 9.1 N, which decreases drastically to lower values between 6.4 and 4.6 N after further aging at temperatures from 75 to 125 °C. Double layers of intermetallic compounds with the compositions of (Au0.30Ni0.70)(Sn0.90Bi0.10)4/Ni3Sn4 can be found at the solder/pad interfaces of the aged Sn-58Bi solder joints. Ball shear testing of the reflowed specimens shows ductile fracture through the solder matrix, which changes to brittle cleavage fracture mainly along the (Au0.30- Ni0.70)(Sn0.90Bi0.10)4 intermetallic layer after aging at various temperatures. The measurement of ball shear strengths (S) reveals a linear relation with the thicknesses (X) of (Au0.30Ni0.70)(Sn0.90Bi0.10)4 intermetallic layers: S = 7.13 - 0.33X. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the reflow process of Sn-3.5Ag solder ball grid array (BGA) packages with Ag/Cu and Au/Ni/Cu pads, Ag and Au thin films dissolve rapidly into the liquid solder, and the Cu and Ni layers react with the Sn-3.5Ag solder to form Cu6Sn5 and Ni3Sn4 intermetallic compounds at the solder/pad interfaces, respectively. The Cu6Sn5 intermetallic compounds also appear as clusters in the solder matrix of Ag surface-finished packages accompanied by Ag3Sn dispersions. In the solder matrix of Au/Ni surface-finished specimens, Ag3Sn and AuSn4 intermetallics can be observed, and their coarsening coincides progressively with the aging process. The interfacial Cu6Sn5 and Ni3Sn4 intermetallic layers grow by a diffusion-controlled mechanism after aging at 100 and 150°C. Ball shear strengths of the reflowed Sn-3.5Ag packages with both surface finishes are similar, displaying the same degradation tendencies as a result of the aging effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: Alterations in microvascular perfusion of the intestine after hepatic ischemia/reperfusion have been suggested as an important cause of postoperative septic complications. We therefore investigated small bowel microcirculation and mucosal injury after liver ischemia/reperfusion in a rat model. Furthermore, we analyzed the effects of the regulatory peptides vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and gastrin-releasing peptide for their splanchnic vasoactivity. Methods: Hepatic ischemia was induced by clamping of the left hepatic artery and vein for 40 min, followed by 60 min of reperfusion. The control group was treated similarly, but without clamping of the liver vessels. Ten minutes after clamping of the hepatic vessels, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide or gastrin-releasing peptide, respectively, were continuously infused intravenously in the experimental groups. Small bowel microcirculation and mucosal injury were assessed using intravital microscopy and the Chiu-score, respectively. Results: The functional capillary density of the small intestine following ischemia and reperfusion of the left hepatic lobe significantly decreased compared to normal controls in both the mucosa and the smooth intestinal muscle. Red blood cell velocity decreased, whereas leukocyte-endothelium adherence, stasis index and the mucosal injury score increased. Administration of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide resulted in an increase of functional capillary density in the mucosa and of the red blood cell velocity and a decrease in the stasis index. The mucosal injury score was significantly higher in reperfused animals without treatment. The application of gastrin-releasing peptide resulted in an isolated increase of the red blood cell velocity. Leukocyte adherences could not be altered by the regulatory peptides. Conclusion: We conclude that hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury leads to significant alterations of small bowel microcirculation and mucosal injury... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leadless chip resistor (LCR) assemblies were manufactured using both traditional tin-lead (Sn37Pb) and lead-free (Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu) solders. The leadfree test vehicles were assembled using three different cooling rates: 1.6°C/sec, 3.8°C/sec, and 6.8°C/sec. They were then exposed to accelerated thermalcycling (ATC) tests between 0°C and 100°C with a 10-14°C/min ramp rate and a 5-min dwell time. The test results indicated that these lead-free solder joints had better creep-fatigue performance than the tin-lead solder joints. The LCR built with the medium cooling rate showed the longest fatigue life compared with the resistors built with the normal cooling rate of 1.6°C/sec and the higher cooling rate 6.8°C/sec. The number of cycles to failure was significantly correlated to the void defect rate. Failure analyses were done using cross-sectioning methods and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Finite-element models were built to analyze the inelastic, equivalent strain range in solder joints subjected to thermal-cycling conditions with different degrees of solder wetting. The results indicated that poor wetting increases strains throughout the joint significantly, which is in accordance with the ATC results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reaction characteristics of the In-15Pb-5Ag (wt.%) solder with a Au/Ni/Cu pad during reflow soldering and aging treatment were examined. Interfacial reaction during reflow resulted in either an AuIn2 or Ni28In72 layer, depending on reflow time. The AuIn2 layer became thinner and disappeared from the interface, and only the Ni28In72 layer grew with the progress of aging treatment at 130°C. Based on those observations, the dissolution rate of the Au top layer was estimated, and the behavior of the AuIn2 layer during reflow and aging treatment was discussed. In addition, peak shear load and fracture energy of the solder bump were measured as a function of reflow time and aging treatment. The results were compared with those measured with the Sn-37Pb solder bump. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After reflow of Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu and Sn-20In-2Ag-0.5Cu solder balls on Au/Ni surface finishes in ball grid array (BGA) packages, scallop-shaped intermetallic compounds (Cu0.70Ni0.28Au0.02)6Sn5 (IM1a) and (Cu0.76Ni0.24)6(Sn0.86In0.14)5 (IM1b), respectively, appear at the interfaces. Aging at 100°C and 150°C for Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu results in the formation of a new intermetallic phase (Cu0.70Ni0.14Au0.16)6Sn5 (IM2a) ahead of the former IM1a intermetallics. The growth of the newly appeared intermetallic compound, IM2a, is governed by a parabolic relation with an increase in aging time, with a slight diminution of the former IM1a intermetallics. After prolonged aging at 150°C, the IM2a intermetallics partially spall off and float into the solder matrix. Throughout the aging of Sn-20In-2Ag-.5Cu solder joints at 75°C and 115°C, partial spalling of the IM1b interfacial intermetallics induces a very slow increase in thickness. During aging at 115°C for 700 h through 1,000 h, the spalled IM1b intermetallics in the solder matrix migrate back to the interfaces and join with the IM1b interfacial intermetallics to react with the Ni layers of the Au/Ni surface finishes, resulting in the formation and rapid growth of a new (Ni0.85Cu0.15)(Sn0.71In0.29)2 intermetallic layer (IM2b). From ball shear tests, the strengths of the Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu and Sn-201n-2Ag-0.5Cu solder joints after reflow are ascertained to be 10.4 N and 5.4 N, respectively, which drop to lower values after aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intermetallic compounds formed after reflow and burn-in testing of a Sn-20In-0.8Cu solder ball grid array (BGA) package are investigated. Along with the formation of the Cu6(Sn0.78 In0.22)5 precipitates (IM1) in the solder matrix, scallop-shaped intermetallic compounds (IM2) with a compositional mixture of Cu6](Sn0.87In0.13)5 and Ni3(Sn0.87In0.13)4 appear at the interfaces between the solder balls and Au/Ni/Cu pads. A significant number of intermetallic particles (IM3), with a composition of (Au0.80Cu0.20)(In0.33Sn0.67)2, can also be found in the solder matrix. After aging at 115 ° C for 750 h, an additional intermetallic compound layer (IM4) with a composition of (Ni0.91Cu0.09)3(Sn0.77In0.23)2 is formed at the interface between IM2 and the Ni layer. The ball shear strength of the Sn-20In-0.8Cu BGA solder after reflow is 4.5 N and will rise to maximum values after aging at 75 ° C and 115 ° C for 100 h. With a further increase of the aging time at both temperatures, the joint strengths exhibit a tendency to decline linearly at about 1.7 x 10-3 N/h. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flip-chip technology with the layout of ball grid array has been widely used in today’s microelectronics industry. The elemental distribution in the edge of the solder bump is crucial for its correlation with the bump strength. In this study, Ni/Cu under-bump metallization (UBM) was used to evaluate the intermetallic compound (IMC) formation in the edge of the solder bump between the UBM and eutectic Sn-Pb solder in the 63Sn-37Pb/Ni/Cu/Ti/Si3N4/Si multilayer structure. During reflows, layered-type (Ni1−xCux)3Sn4 and island-like (Cu1−yNiy)6Sn5 IMCs formed in the interface between the solder and UMB, while only the (Cu1−yNiy)6Sn5 IMC was observed in the sideway of the Ni/Cu UBM. After high-temperature storage (HTS) at 150°C for 1,000 h, both (Cu1−yNiy)6Sn5 and (Cu1−zNiz)3Sn were found in the sideway of the Ni/Cu UBM. Two other IMCs, (Ni1−xCux)3Sn4 and (Cu1−yNiy)6Sn5, formed in the interface between the solder and UBM. The growth of the (Cu1−yNiy)6Sn5 IMC was relatively fast during HTS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sn-3.5Ag and Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu ball-grid-array solder balls bonded onto Ni/Au metallization exhibited different interfacial morphology after both wetting and solid-state reactions. In contrast to the eutectic-SnPb solder system, both Pb-free systems showed higher solder-ball shear strength after annealing. Reprecipitation of Au as (Au,Ni)Sn4 at the interface, as shown in the eutectic-SnPb solder system, was not observed in both Pb-free solder systems. Instead, Ni3Sn4 and Cu-Sn-Ni-Au intermetallic compounds (IMCs) were found in the SnAg and SnAgCu systems, respectively. In the SnAgCu system, a thick, acicular-Cu-Sn-Ni IMC formed after wetting, but a faceted-Cu-Sn-Ni-Au phase was found with longer annealing. The growth of this interfacial phase in the Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu solder system was also slightly inhibited by the addition of Cu, with a formation energy of about 200 kJ/mol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reaction between the eutectic Sn-3.5Ag solder and the Au/Ni surface finish during reflow as well as during isothermal aging was studied. The Au layer was electroplated and had a thickness of the one μm. The peak reflow temperature was fixed at 250 C while the reflow time was varied between 10 sec and one h. Samples that went through 90 sec reflow time were then subjected to 160 C isothermal aging for up to 875 h. It was found that during reflow the Au layer reacted very quickly with the solder to form AuSn4. One μm of Au layer was consumed in less than 10 sec. As the aging time increased, AuSn4 grains began to separate themselves from the Ni layer at the roots of the grains and started to fall into the solder. When, the reflow time reached 30 sec, all the Au intermetallic head left the interface, and Ni3Sn4 started, to form at the interface. The Ni3Sn4 growth rate followed linear kinetics initially (<240 sec), but the growth rate slowed down afterward. During the isothermal aging, only a small amount of (AuxNi1-x)Sn4 resettled back to the interface, and a continuous (Au0.45Ni0.55)Sn4 layer did not form at the interface, unlike the case for the Sn-37Pb solder. This is an important advantage for Sn-3.5 Ag over Sn-37Pb because a continuous (Au0.45Ni0.55)Sn4 layer inevitably will weaken a solder joint. Our observation indicated that many (AuxNi1-x)Sn4 particles were trapped by the Ag3Sn particles, and were hindered from resettling back to the interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Composite solders offer improved properties compared to non-composite solders. Ni reinforced composite solder was prepared by mechanically dispersing 15 vol.% of Ni particles into eutectic Sn-3.5Ag solder paste. The average size of the Ni particle reinforcements was approximately 5 microns. The morphology, size and distribution of the reinforcing phase were characterized metallographically. Solid-state isothermal aging study was performed on small realistic size solder joints to study the formation and growth of the intermetallic (IM) layers at Ni reinforcement/solder and Cu substrate/solder interfaces. Effects of reflow on microstructure and solderability, were studied using Cu substrates. Regarding solderability, the wetting angle of multiple reflowed Ni reinforced composite solder was compared to the solder matrix alloy, eutectic Sn-3.5Ag. General findings of this study revealed that Ni particle reinforced composite solder has comparable wetting characteristics to eutectic Sn-3.5Ag solder. Significant IM layers growth was observed in the Ni composite solder joint under isothermal aging at 150 C. Microstructural evolution was insignificant when aging temperature was lower than 100 C. Multiple reflow did not significantly change the microstructure in Ni composite solder joint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reactions between the eutectic PbSn solder and the Au/Ni/Cu tri-layer metallization in advanced microelectronic packages were studied. In this investigation, reflowed packages were subjected to aging at 160°C for times as long as 4000 h. Immediately after the reflow, all the Au had left the Au/Ni/Cu metallization, forming many (Au1−xNix)Sn4 particles distributed throughout the whole solderjoint. In addition, there was a thin layer of Ni3Sn4 (1.4 μm) at the interface. After 500 h of aging, most of the (Au1−xNix)Sn4 particles regrouped at the interface as a continuous (Au0.45Ni0.55)Sn4, layer over the Ni3Sn4 layer. After 2500 h of aging, nearly all the Ni layer had been consumed. A 15 μm layer of (Au0.45Ni0.55) Sn4 and a 20 μm Ni3Sn4 were found over the remaining Ni. At 3000 h, the Cu had started to react with both Ni3Sn4 and (Au1−xNix)Sn4, forming a layer of (Cu1−p−pAupNiq)6Sn5, a layer of (Cu1−r−sAu1Nis)6Sn5, and a layer of Cu3Sn over the Cu layer. A small amount of Cu (2.7–5.7 at.%) was found to dissolve in this Ni3Sn4, forming a ternary compound (Ni1−yCuy)3Sn4. It was revealed that Au diffused up-hill during the reaction. After aging for 4000 h, all the (Au1−xNix)Sn4 had disappeared and Au atoms had diffused into the (Cu1−p−qAupNiq)6Sn5 and (Cu1−r−sAurNis)6Sn5 phases. The practical implications for the above findings were pointed out in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solder joint interconnects are mechanical means of structural support for bridging the various electronic components and providing electrical contacts and a thermal path for heat dissipation. The functionality of the electronic device often relies on the structural integrity of the solder. The dimensional stability of solder joints is numerically predicted based on their mechanical properties. Algorithms to model the kinetics of dissolution and subsequent growth of intermetallic from the complete knowledge of a single history of time-temperature-reflow profile, by considering equivalent isothermal time intervals, have been developed. The information for dissolution is derived during the heating cycle of reflow and for the growth process from cooling curve of reflow profile. A simple and quick analysis tool to derive tensile stress-strain maps as a function of the reflow temperature of solder and strain rate has been developed by numerical program. The tensile properties are used in modeling thermal strain, thermal fatigue and to predict the overall fatigue life of solder joints. The numerical analysis of the tensile properties as affected by their composition and rate of testing, has been compiled in this paper. A numerical model using constitutive equation has been developed to evaluate the interfacial fatigue crack growth rate. The model can assess the effect of cooling rate, which depends on the level of strain energy release rate. Increasing cooling rate from normalizing to water-quenching, enhanced the fatigue resistance to interfacial crack growth by up to 50% at low strain energy release rate. The increased cooling rates enhanced the fatigue crack growth resistance by surface roughening at the interface of solder joint. This paper highlights salient features of process modeling. Interfacial intermetallic microstructure is affected by cooling rate and thereby affects the mechanical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ultrastructure of gap junctions between rat liver parenchymal cells has been studied after in vivo ischemia, with and without subsequent blood reflow. Freeze fracture replicas were analysed by electron microscopic observation, optical diffraction and morphometric analysis. In control specimens gap junction connexons were widely dispersed and arranged in nearly random fashion over nearly the whole junctional area, with only minute spots of hexagonal connexon arrangement. An ischemic period of 30 min, from which the vast majority of cells are capable of recovery after restoration of the blood supply, usually entails only a slight enlargement of the areas of hexagonally arranged connexons. After 120 min of ischemia without reflow, which results in necrosis of most parenchymal cells, all gap junctions showed a completely hexagonal arrangement of connexons. The numerical density of connexons after 30 and 120 min of ischemia without reflow was significantly higher than in controls, whereas after 30 min of ischemia followed by 2 h of reflow the numerical density had returned to control levels. A fully hexagonal arrangement of gap junction connexons, as occurs after longer periods of ischemia, seems to be related to irreversible cell damage and presumably to metabolic uncoupling of cells. This was preceded by an increase in the numerical density of connexons, which is probably a reversible phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the effects of the cooling rate during the reflow process on the microstructure of eutectic Sn-Bi solder bumps of various sizes fabricated by electroplating. To fabricate eutectic Sn-Bi solder bumps of less than 50 µm in diameter, Sn-Bi alloys were electroplated on Cu pads and reflowed at various cooling rates using the rapid thermal annealing system. The interior microstructure of electroplated bumps showed a fine mixture of Sn-rich phases and Bi-rich phases regardless of the cooling rate. Such an interior microstructure of electroplated bumps was quite different from the reported microstructure of vacuum-evaporated bumps. Ball shear tests were performed to study the effects of the cooling rate on the shear strength of the solder bumps and showed that the shear strength of the bumps increased with increasing cooling rate probably due to the reduced grain size. Soft fractures inside the solder bump were observed during the ball shear test regardless of the cooling rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]