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The influence of air inlet temperature at 155, 165 and 175 °C and whey protein isolate (WPI) of 15, 25 and 35% concentration on numerous parameters of ginger oleoresin powder produced by spray drying was examined in this research. Powder recovery increased dramatically from 23.35 to 68.43% and 53.66 to 64.27%, respectively, as WPI concentration increased from 15 to 35% and inlet temperature decreased from 155 to 175 °C. Increases in WPI concentration and inlet temperature enhanced dissolving time from 22.36 to 32.17 s and 19.54 to 24.24 s respectively. Water activity, encapsulation efficiency of ginger oleoresin microcapsules increased from 0.16 to 0.22, 75.28 to 82.43% respectively, while total phenolic content decreased from 27.13 to 19.04 (mg GAE/g) when WPI concentration increased. Lower encapsulation efficiency (78.66%) and higher total phenol content (23.57 mg GAE/g) were reported at higher inlet temperatures (175 °C). The encapsulated oleoresin samples also exhibited smaller-sized particles which were tightly packed at higher inlet temperatures. Micrographs of the powdered sample revealed smooth morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for delivery of messenger RNA (mRNA)–based therapies has gained substantial attention in the field of drug development. In such an application, multiple LNP attributes have to be carefully characterized to ensure product safety and quality, whereas accurate and efficient characterization of these complex mRNA-LNP formulations remains a challenging endeavor. Here, we present the development and application of an online separation and characterization platform designed for the isolation and in-depth analysis of mRNAs and mRNA-loaded LNPs. Our asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation with a multi-detector (MD-AF4) method has demonstrated exceptional resolution between mRNA-LNPs and mRNAs, delivering excellent recoveries (over 70%) for both analytes and exceptional repeatability. Notably, this platform allows for comprehensive and multi-attribute LNP characterization, including online particle sizing, morphology characterization, and determination of encapsulation efficiency, all within a single injection. Furthermore, real-time online sizing by synchronizing multi-angle light scattering (MALS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) presented higher resolution over traditional batch-mode DLS, particularly in differentiating heterogeneous samples with a low abundance of large-sized particles. Additionally, our method proves to be a valuable tool for monitoring LNP stability under varying stress conditions. Our work introduces a robust and versatile analytical platform using MD-AF4 that not only efficiently provides multi-attribute characterizations of mRNA-LNPs but also holds promise in advancing studies related to formulation screening, quality control, and stability assessment in the evolving field of nanoparticle delivery systems for mRNAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying is a well-established, energy efficient, and scalable process widely used in the food industry, however it may lead to thermal degradation of susceptible compounds, such as (poly)phenols, resulting in biological activity loss to some extent. In this study, we aimed to improve the physicochemical stability and bioaccessibility of (poly)phenols from Rosa pimpinellifolia fruit extract (Rosa extract) loaded in liposomes by generating solid particles via spray drying. Liposomes were conjugated with chitosan (Ch) and whey protein (Wp) to optimize the biopolymer concentrations by monitoring mean particle diameter, polydispersity index, and surface charge. The mean diameter of liposomes ranged between 135 and 210 nm upon optimal addition of Ch (0.4%, w/v) and Wp (4.0%, w/v) which also increased the entrapment efficiency of (poly)phenols from 74.2 to 77.8% and 79.1%, respectively. After spray drying, about 65–76% of the antioxidant capacity were retained in biopolymer-conjugated liposomes (Ch or Wp) while the retention rate was 48% in only spray-dried extract (Rosa extract powder). Compared to unencapsulated Rosa extract, spray drying (Rosa extract powder) and conjugation with Ch (Ch-Lip powder) or Wp (Wp-Lip powder) significantly increased the bioaccessibility of (poly)phenols and preserved their antioxidant capacity. Based on the findings of this study, Ch- or Wp-conjugation of liposomes prior to spray drying could improve physicochemical stability and protect (poly)phenols loaded in liposomes against processing stress and passage through the digestive tract. Further in vitro and in vivo investigations on a variety of bioactive compounds may draw more attention to their potential as functional foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to characterize and evaluate the antioxidant activity of Chlorella peptide fractions coated with chitosan-modified nanoliposomes. Additionally, the release process of these peptide fractions under simulated gastric and intestinal conditions was evaluated. Protein hydrolysates were obtained from Chlorella through enzymatic hydrolysis, resulting in increased concentrations of antioxidant and hydrophobic amino acids. Peptide fractions were selected and separated based on their molecular weights, and it was observed that the fractions with lower molecular weights (less than 10 kDa, PF-10) contained higher amounts of hydrophobic and antioxidant amino acids. Among the fractions, PF-10 exhibited the highest radical inhibition activity for DPPH and ABTS, as well as enhanced reducing power and chelating activity towards copper ions. PF-10 and PF-30 (peptide fractions with a molecular weight less than 30 kDa) also demonstrated higher inhibition of nitric oxide radicals and total antioxidant activity (TAA) compared to the hydrolyzed form and other fractions. The analysis of physicochemical properties identified PF-10 as the most favorable treatment due to its size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency (EE). Coating the nanoliposomes with chitosan resulted in an increase in particle size and PDI but significantly improved the preservation of EE during storage. Chitosan coating also enhanced the activity of DPPH and OH radical scavenging. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the localization of peptides within the polar regions and the bilayer membrane of nanoliposomes, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed agglomerated and spherical structures. Overall, our findings highlight the effectiveness of nanoliposomes as carriers for delivering peptide fractions with high antioxidant activity. The formulation of chitosan-coated nanoliposomes as carriers for Chlorella-peptide fractions represents an innovative advancement, providing opportunities for the creation of functional and stable formulations. These formulations hold the potential to provide benefits regarding human health and environmental considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, it was aimed to investigate the effect of different coating materials on the microencapsulation of hempseed oil by spray drying. For this purpose, hempseed oil emulsions were prepared with skimmed milk powder (SMP), maltodextrin (MD), and whey protein concentrate (WPC). The properties of these emulsions including rheological, zeta potential, and physicochemical properties were analyzed. Then, hempseed oil microcapsules were produced using spray drying. The effect of the different coating materials on spray-dried hempseed oil capsules was evaluated in terms of microencapsulation yield, surface oil, microencapsulation efficiency, oxidation stability, and physicochemical properties. The combinations of SMP (50.58%) or WPC (56.21%) with MD significantly enhanced the microencapsulation yield. The highest microencapsulation efficiency (92.16%) was obtained in the microcapsule with SMP: MD. This microcapsule with SMP: MD also showed higher oxidative stability compared to other microcapsules. Besides, this combination (SMP: MD) effectively protected the hempseed oil against oxidation during the Schaal oven test. Additionally, spray-dried hempseed oil microcapsules were characterized using FT-IR, TGA, and SEM. It was determined that using MD as a coating material improved the thermal stability of the microcapsules. As a result, it was concluded that the SMP: MD as a coating material was suitable for the microencapsulation of hempseed oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to encapsulate carotenogenic extracts from Sporidiobolus salmonicolor yeast through freeze-drying and evaluate the stability during the storage and their potential application and in dairy product. An experimental design methodology was employed to assess the matrix effects of gum Arabic (GA) and maltodextrin (MD) composition on carotenoid encapsulation efficiency. The microparticles were characterized for yield, encapsulation efficiency, water activity, moisture, color parameters, and their application in natural yogurt. The extract carotenoid showed 5014.12 μg/L of total carotenoids, without toxicity and with antioxidant activity of 1.44 mM trolox/g. The maximum carotenoid encapsulation efficiency was 90%, achieved with MD and GA proportions of 5 and 30 g/L, respectively. Storage stability tests for the microcapsules revealed initial values of 0.097 for water activity and 1.05% for moisture. Thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated encapsulation efficiency, with carotenoids undergoing degradation at 408 °C. Storage in an amber bottle preserved 84% of the encapsulated material for 110 days. Applying concentrations of 0.5% and 1.0% of encapsulated carotenoids in natural yogurt maintained the product's color (Chroma C*) for 22 days when stored at 4 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ilex paraguariensis, known as yerba-mate, is widely consumed as a hot or cold infusion in South America. Every year during the leaves harvesting, a rate of 5 tons/ha of branches is generated due to the tree trimming. The epidermis of these branches (IPC) is characterized by a high concentration of chlorogenic acids. Due to its promising high compound concentration, IPC extract is well-suited for various applications, and its preservation is particularly crucial, especially in bakery goods. This study aimed to optimize the spray-drying encapsulation of IPC extract to enhance the stability of chlorogenic acids for baked product applications. Through multivariate design, the optimal encapsulation conditions were determined, resulting in 75% encapsulation efficiency (%EE), 66.5% loading capacity (%LC), a 41 ºC increase in thermal stability, and particles with an average diameter of up to 5 µm. In sponge cakes formulated with encapsulated IPC extract (IPCE), an average of 94.4% of chlorogenic acids was preserved, compared to only 69.3% when free-IPC extract was used. Furthermore, the chlorogenic acids in IPCE exhibited excellent stability over 12 months when stored at 4ºC. Spray-drying encapsulation proved to be a rapid and effective process for the food industry, preserving chlorogenic acids for at least one year during storage under conditions that would naturally lead to degradation. These findings encourage the application of encapsulates to enhance the functionality of foods and add value to a naturally neglected commercial product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the influence of Ca2+ on the electrochemical properties and performance of catechin-loaded mung bean protein hydrogels. Our results demonstrate that increasing Ca2+ concentration significantly improves the encapsulation efficiency and drug loading rates within the hydrogel, leading to enhanced drug delivery capabilities. Furthermore, we observe that the electrochemical properties, including viscosity and storage modulus (G'), of the mung bean protein hydrogel exhibit an optimal trend, peaking at a Ca2+ addition of 10%. Importantly, our hydrogel demonstrates superior slow-release properties in a simulated gastric-intestinal digestion model, particularly when the Ca2+ concentration is increased. These findings highlight the essential role of Ca2+ in fine-tuning the electrochemical properties of mung bean protein hydrogels and provide valuable insights for the design of efficient drug delivery systems. The novelty of our work lies in the comprehensive investigation of the effects of Ca2+ on both the electrochemical properties and slow-release capabilities of mung bean protein gel, as well as the elucidation of their potential applications in drug delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A smart drug delivery system involving the nanocomposite of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and polypyrrole (PPy) loaded with the drug, curcumin has been developed through ecofriendly routes. The nanocomposite exhibits pH dependent and sustained drug release over a prolonged period. Functionalization of MWCNTs via lemon fruit extract provides water dispersible MWCNTs, which can be used as the drug carrier with reduced toxicity and enhanced biocompatibility. The inner void spaces of functionalized MWCNTs are used for storing drug which results in enhanced curcumin encapsulation of about 89%. Morphological, structural and chemical characterization of the developed nanocomposite has been carried out using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy techniques. Dynamic light scattering experiment reveals that the size and zeta potential of drug loaded nanocomposite lie within the ideal range of 172–194 nm and 18.4 mV, respectively. Ease of cellular uptake and chemotherapeutic potency of curcumin loaded nanocomposite are confirmed through fluorescence imaging under in vitro conditions. Finally, the safety profile of acid functionalized MWCNTs/PPy nanocomposite is endorsed by the cytocompatibility analysis, carried out using SRB assay. Altogether, the nanocomposite developed in the present work through green chemistry routes, is one step ahead as a versatile carrier to deliver hydrophobic drugs like curcumin, and offers great promise in drug delivery applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cell-based encapsulation systems can improve the stability and delivery of diverse bioactives, but predicting encapsulation efficiency is challenging due to various intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In the current study, a full factorial design was used to evaluate the influence of biochemical properties of yeast cells, chemical nature of bioactives, and ethanol level in the compound solution on the encapsulation efficiency of cell-based carriers. All compound-yeast-ethanol combinations showed linear trends between the loading yield and initial compound-to-cell ratio in the range chosen in the current study, implying that the encapsulation efficiency is constant regardless of initial compound-to-cell ratio, making it a good response variable. Higher overall encapsulation efficiency was achieved with a more hydrophobic compound and a lower ethanol level. Yeast cells with higher protein content achieved higher encapsulation efficiency for most of the compound-ethanol combination, except for retinol with 50% ethanol, where high-lipid cells exhibited higher efficiency. Overall, the chemical composition of the cell-based carriers has less significant effect on encapsulation efficiency compared to the other two factors. The most efficient predictive modeling pipeline for encapsulation efficiency consists of biochemical profiling of yeast cells with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), feature extraction with a calibrated partial least square regression (PLSR) model, and prediction with a random forest model, obtaining a mean squared error (MSE) of 0.0095 and R2 of 0.86 in the test set. Overall, the results highlight the potential of in silico pipeline and machine learning approaches to predict the encapsulation efficiency of cell-based carriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The obtained garden cress 6-day sprouts phenolic-rich extract (GCSP) contained efficient health-promoting antioxidant-phenolic compounds. To improve the stability, bioavailability, and functional properties of these valuable phenolic compounds, GCSP was encapsulated by freeze-drying technique using different ratios of garden cress gum (GG) and maltodextrin (M) in the absence and presence of sonication (S). The prepared S/GG-microcapsule retained the highest phenolic content (95%), antioxidant activity (141.6%), and encapsulation efficiency (98.2%). It displayed the highest bio-accessibility of GCSP-phenolic compounds in simulated intestine fluid (87%) and demonstrated the greatest storage-stability at 40 °C for 60 days. S/GG-microcapsule possessed better physical properties including moisture, solubility, swelling, and morphological structures using SEM. The main spectral features, crosslinking, and improved thermal stability were demonstrated for S/GG-microcapsule using FTIR and thermogravimetric analyses. S/GG-microcapsule demonstrated much greater antibacterial activity than GCSP against pathogenic bacteria. S/GG-microcapsule can be added to different food products to improve their antioxidant and antibacterial properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As a promising strategy to overcome the therapeutic disadvantages of 6-mercaptopurine (6MP), we proposed the encapsulation of 6MP in chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) to form the 6MP-CNPs complexes. The encapsulation was followed by the loading of complexes on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to generate a novel 6MP-CNPs-AuNPs nanocomposite to facilitate the chemo-photothermal therapeutic effect. Methods: CNPs were produced based on the ionic gelation method of tripolyphosphate (TPP). Moreover, 6MP-CNPs composite were prepared by the modified ionic gelation method and then loaded on AuNPs which were synthesized according to the standard wet chemical method using trisodium citrate as a reducing and capping agent. The synthesized nanocomposites were characterized by UV–VIS spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The potential cytotoxicity of the prepared nanocomposites on MCF7 cell line was carried out using Sulphorhodamine-B (SRB) assay. Results: Optimization of CNPs, 6MP-CNPs, and 6MP-CNPs-AuNPs revealed 130 ± 10, 200 ± 20, and 25 ± 5 nm particle size diameters with narrow size distributions and exhibited high stability with zeta potential 36.9 ± 4.11, 37, and 44.4 mV, respectively. The encapsulation efficiency of 6MP was found to be 57%. The cytotoxicity of 6MP-CNPs and 6MP-CNPs-AuNPs on breast cell line MCF7 was significantly increased and reached IC50 of 9.3 and 8.7 µM, respectively. The co-therapeutic effect of the nanocomposites resulted in an improvement of the therapeutic efficacy compared to the individual effect of chemo- and photothermal therapy. Irradiation of 6MP-CNPs and 6MP-CNPs-AuNPs with a diode laser (DPSS laser, 532 nm) was found to have more inhibition on cell viability with a decrease in IC50 to 5 and 4.4 µM, respectively. Conclusion: The Chemo-Photothermal co-therapy treatment with novel prepared nanocomposite exhibits maximum therapeutic efficacy and limits the dosage-related side effects of 6MP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heat treatment and mechanical movement are the most common stressors that affect food material processing. A w/o/w emulsion is a promising system for delivering sensitive materials in food products and in reducing dietary fat content, but for wider uses, it is necessary to evaluate emulsion behaviour during food manufacturing. In the present study, we simulate heat (5 to 85 °C) and mechanical processes (shear rate 0.1 to 1000 s−1) using rotational rheometry and describe changes in glucose encapsulation efficiency and droplet size of model w/o/w 20% emulsions prepared with 2.5 wt % PGPR (polyglycerol polyricinoleate) as lipophilic emulsifier in canola oil (oil phase) and distilled water or 10 wt % skim milk as an internal water phase stabilized or not by 3 types of carrageenan (0.5 wt %) and milk proteins as emulsifier. The comparison of w/o/w emulsions prepared with three specific types of carrageenan provides the important information on the suitability of the combination of specific carrageenan and internal water phase. It was found that model manufacturing did not influence the result encapsulation efficiency of all w/o/w emulsions significantly. We demonstrated that model w/o/w 20% emulsions were sufficiently stable for manufacturing, especially when skim milk was used with 0.5 wt % kappa carrageenan as the internal water phase. These samples subjected to manufacturing showed an encapsulation efficiency 53.97 ± 0.00% even after 4 weeks storage at 4 °C and droplet size (D[4, 3]) 39.04 ± 1.56 µm. So prepared w/o/w emulsions provided the demanded stability and could be part of functional food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to co-encapsulate cinnamon extract (CE) and zein hydrolysate (ZH) with nanoliposomes (NLPs). The CE and ZH were successfully loaded in NLPs with 94.25 ± 7.13% and 92.36 ± 3.22% of encapsulation efficiency, respectively. The NLPs were co-loaded with CE and ZH and showed high α-diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity (63.38 ± 4.16%) on account of the synergistic antioxidative relation between CE and ZH. This synergistic antioxidative significantly decreased the thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in the oxidized NLPs co-loaded with CE and ZH. The particle size of the produced NLP samples was lower than 100 nm, and the co-loading of CE and ZH significantly decreased the particle size in the oxidized NLPs. Moreover, the formation of electrostatic interactions between the loaded compounds and liposome interfacial membrane was approved by the changes in zeta potential when loading CE and ZH. The morphology study exhibited that the co-loading of CE and ZH significantly decreased the oxidative damages and particle size of NLPs. In conclusion, the NLPs co-loaded with CE and ZH were potentially efficient candidates to be applied as natural antioxidants in food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are considered ideal antibiotic candidates, but their therapeutic ability and application are restricted by their limited formulation. Nanoliposome encapsulation can lower the haemolytic toxicity of drugs. CGA-N9, a peptide derived from chromogranin A, is an AMP with high antifungal activity against Candida tropicalis. Herein, CGA-N9-encapsulated nanoliposomes were prepared and characterized, and their antagonistic activity against C. tropicalis and haemolytic activity were studied. The results showed that the CGA-N9 nanoliposomes had a particle size of 127.5 ± 12.8 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 87.9%, as determined by the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method established herein. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the CGA-N9 nanoliposomes was 7.8 μg/mL, which was higher than that of free CGA-N9 (3.9 μg/mL), and no haemolysis was detected at the maximum concentration tested (250 μg/mL). These results provide an experimental reference for the practical use of peptides in the clinic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Squalene, a triterpenoid compound is proven to possess immense bioactivities by virtue of its high antioxidant activity. The present study was designed to investigate the quality attributes of muffins as influenced by addition of encapsulated squalene. Nutritional analysis showed that calorific value of prepared muffins has ranged from 480.78 ± 0.10 to 501.61 ± 0.38 kcal. Baking loss was lowest in case of muffins prepared with encapsulated squalene with its crumb region recorded higher moisture content. Color kinetics study indicated that browning index (BI) was higher in crust portion of encapsulated squalene enriched muffins. Scanning electron micrographs showing that muffins with encapsulated squalene had stronger structural organization. This was further supported by the textural studies showed that the muffins with encapsulated squalene was cohesive, springier and chewy with less gumminess and stiffness indicating their efficacy in improving the textural quality. Oxidative stability and microbiological quality were also high in squalene enriched foods suggesting that squalene might have some antimicrobial effects. Outcome of the study indicated that encapsulated squalene can be very well utilised as a functional food ingredient in ready -to-eat functional foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Naringin, a dietary flavonoid of citrus fruits, was encapsulated in biodegradable proteins of zein/casein biopolymers for its enhanced functional properties. The formulation conditions for the synthesis of colloidal particles were optimised by Response surface Methodology (RSM) and the levels were at zein/sodium casein ratio 1.75, pH 9 and naringin 8.7 mg/mL. The optimised nanoparticles showed the mean particle size of 234 nm, zeta potential of − 28.2 mV and a narrow size distribution with the encapsulation efficiency of 71 ± 2%. The physiochemical characteristics of the nanoparticles were analysed by SEM, FTIR, AFM, XRD and DSC techniques. The release kinetics study demonstrated that the release of naringin from the nanoparticles was pH dependent and had an appreciable amount of in vitro bioaccessibility. In 3T3-L1 cell culture study, the encapsulated naringin showed higher anti-adipogenic activity than the unencapsulated molecule by lowering the intracellular lipid accumulation. Further, the toxicity studies in Caco-2 cells indicated that the nanoparticles were free of any adverse effects. Collectively, naringin encapsulated colloidal formulation can be a promising delivery system in functional foods for varied health benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein a study on the process of converting omeprazole into omeprazole vesicles by a film dispersion method is presented. Using encapsulation efficiency as an index, the formulation and technology of omeprazole vesicles are optimized by a single factor experiment and a central composite design-response surface method. The optimized formulation and technology are as follows: the ratio of Tween-80 to cholesterol is 3 : 1, the hydration time is 65 min, the hydration temperature is 30°C, and hydration solvent pH is 11. Under such conditions, the average particle diameter of the obtained the omeprazole vesicles is 70 nm, and the encapsulation efficiency is 92.40%, which is close to the theoretical value of 93.43%. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) characterization reveals that the omeprazole vesicles are of regular spherical shape, and IR and TG characterization demonstrate that omeprazole has been encapsulated by the vesicles. The release time of pure omeprazole drug in simulated human intestinal fluid (pH = 6.8) is about 70 min, and the release time of omeprazole vesicles is ca 75 min, with a release rate of 33.19%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Opioids have been the main factor for drug overdose deaths in the United States. Current naloxone delivery systems are effective in mitigating the opioid effects only for hours. Naloxone-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microparticles were prepared as quick- and long-acting naloxone delivery systems to extend the naloxone effect as an opioid antidote. Methods: The naloxone-PLGA microparticles were made using an emulsification solvent extraction approach with different formulation and processing parameters. Two PLGA polymers with the lactide:glycolide (L:G) ratios of 50:50 and 75:25 were used, and the drug loading was varied from 21% to 51%. Two different microparticles of different sizes with the average diameters of 23 μm and 50 μm were produced using two homogenization-sieving conditions. All the microparticles were critically characterized, and three of them were evaluated with β-arrestin recruitment assays. Results: The naloxone encapsulation efficiency (EE) was in the range of 70–85%. The EE was enhanced when the theoretical naloxone loading was increased from 30% to 60%, the L:G ratio was changed from 50:50 to 75:25, and the average size of the particles was reduced from 50 μm to 23 μm. The in vitro naloxone release duration ranged from 4 to 35 days. Reducing the average size of the microparticles from 50 μm to 23 μm helped eliminate the lag phase and obtain the steady-state drug release profile. The cellular pharmacodynamics of three selected formulations were evaluated by applying DAMGO, a synthetic opioid peptide agonist to a μ-opioid receptor, to recruit β-arrestin 2. Conclusions: Naloxone released from the three selected formulations could inhibit DAMGO-induced β-arrestin 2 recruitment. This indicates that the proposed naloxone delivery system is adequate for opioid reversal during the naloxone release duration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work was to microencapsulate sacha inchi oil (SIO) by the complex coacervation technique using ovalbumin (OVA), tannic acid (TA) and pectin (PEC) as wall materials. The interaction between the biopolymers, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and the structural and thermal characteristics of the formed microcapsules were confirmed. In addition, the presence of phenolic compounds (TA) in the wall material increased the nutritional value of the microcapsules. In the process of microcapsule formation by complex coacervation, a pH value of 3.5 and an OVA:PEC ratio of 4:1 led to a high turbidity and a strong interaction between the biopolymers. The interaction between OVA-TA was confirmed and added value to the OVA and PEC complex. The EE% found was between 70 and 80%, with an ideal proportion and total concentration of biopolymers of 2: 1 (OVA-TA: PEC) and 2.0%, respectively. As demonstrated using the complex coacervation technique, the microcapsules showed high thermal stability and excellent encapsulating capacity without changing the chemical composition of SIO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimization of microencapsulation of sodium selenite 100–900 mg with a combination of Arabian gum 25–29% and Persian gum 5–1% per 20 ml mix spray solution by a solvent evaporation method using response surface methodology with central composite design (α = 2 with 6 central points and 2 repetition in axial and factorial points) were investigated. This study aimed to production of microencapsulated selenium with the highest encapsulation efficiency (EE) and the smallest particle-size for increasing soybean-oil shelf life against oxidation. The optimal-formula-1 (135 mg Na-selenite, Arabian to Persian gum ratio 9) with an actual EE of 77.35% and particle-size of 48.20 μm and the optimal-formula-2 (109 mg Na-selenite, Arabian to Persian gum ratio 14) with an actual EE of 93.74% and particle-size of 45.20 μm produced. Consequently, the un-microencapsulated sodium-selenite (8.6 ppm of sodium-selenite, equivalent to 3.93 ppm pure selenium, regarding recommended daily intake of 55 μg for Selenium and 14 g for oil), the two selected optimal formulas (containing 8.6 ppm sodium-selenite, i.e., 3.92 ppm pure selenium), the BHA (200 ppm), were added to refined antioxidant-free soybean oil (as a control treatment) and then were placed at the 55 °C for (0, 23, 46 days) equaled to 20 °C (0, 180, 360 days) by a shelf-life accelerator program. The oxidation indices including, total acid number, peroxide value, thiobarbituric acid value, para-Anisidine value, and Totox value as well as, antioxidant activity in soybean-oil over a 1-year storage-time at 20 °C showed the order of the proposed treatments were included 482 ppm optimal-formula-2 ≥ 391 ppm optimal-formula-1 ≥ 200 ppm BHA > 8.6 ppm un-microencapsulated Na-selenite > blank treatments. Optimization of selenium microencapsulation process using Arabian-Persian gum profile and different amounts of sodium slenite by RSM (Part 1) and Assessment of the oxidation indices in refined antioxidant-free soybean oil containing microencapsulated optimal formulas in 365-day storage time at 20 °C (Part 2) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microencapsulation of oxidation sensitive oils aims to separate lipids from the environmental oxygen by embedding oil droplets in a solid matrix, which builds a physical barrier. Some oil droplets are not fully incorporated and are in contact with the powder surface generating surface oil. It is proposed that the probability of oil droplets being in contact with the particle surface increases with the oil droplet size. The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of the oil droplet size on the encapsulation efficiency (EE). Two sets of feed emulsions differing in the applied homogenization pressure and in the protein to oil ratio were spray dried using a pilot plant spray dryer. The oil droplet size of the emulsion was determined by static light scattering (SLS). In addition, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was used to measure the d3,2 of oil droplets in the emulsion and in the powder before and after surface oil removal. Encapsulates were analyzed regarding aw, moisture content, particle size, oil load and EE. The oil droplet size in the emulsion decreased with increasing protein to oil ratio as well as with the homogenization pressure. Large oil droplets and in particular droplet clusters resulted in more non-encapsulated oil. The experimentally determined EE was in accordance with the theoretical one, calculated based on the droplet and particle diameter. For emulsions with a diameter > 1 µm, the d3,2 decreased in the powder and further by removing the surface oil, which was related to the deformation of oil droplets contributing to the non-encapsulated oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homogeneous chitosan nanoparticles utilizing EPR effect and pH-sensitive properties have an immense potential for loading and delivery of anticancer drugs. The aim of this study was preparing doxorubicin-loaded homogeneously distributed chitosan nanoparticles by using a simple and mild method, modified ionic gelation, with a very high encapsulation efficiency for controlled and pH-sensitive release. FESEM image revealed that the synthesized chitosan nanoparticles had a uniform spherical morphology with the size range 20–35 nm. The parameters of drug stirring duration, drug amount and nanoparticles formation time were changed to achieve maximum encapsulation efficiency as well as the effect of each parameter on the encapsulation efficiency was studied. The encapsulation efficiency toward doxorubicin under optimal conditions was 81.6±0.8 % (n=5±SD) that was higher than those previously published in literature. The investigations of doxorubicin release from chitosan nanoparticles in four media with different pH values showed a pH-sensitive release with a higher release rate in an acidic environment. The drug release mechanism at all pH values was also evaluated by zero-order, first-order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas models. The most consistent model for release curve at four pHs was Korsmeyer-Peppas model. Therefore, we presented a method for the preparation of homogeneous doxorubicin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles with small size that can be industrialized because they were made based on a very simple and green method without the use of a complex system and expensive materials as well as due to their high encapsulation efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

β-Carotene was encapsulated in microbeads formed by ionotropic gelation of multilayered emulsions containing sodium caseinate (Na-CAS) and κ-carrageenan at pH 7 and 3.5. The influence of κ-carrageenan concentration on the morphology of microbeads was studied, as well as the effect of pH on the encapsulation efficiency and rheological properties of microbead suspensions. Most of the microbeads showed monomodal size distribution with a mean particle diameter between 25.3 and 176.1 μm. Microbead morphology was influenced by the κ-carrageenan concentration, as microbeads tended to be larger and more spherical at higher κ-carrageenan concentrations. On the other hand, microbeads were slightly affected by pH, showing similar results for encapsulation efficiency and rheological properties of microbead suspensions in salt solution. The encapsulation efficiency was higher than 60% at both pH values. In addition, rheological measurements indicated that the incorporation of microbeads exerted a slight influence on the viscosity of aqueous solutions, mainly up to the 40% volume fraction. Therefore, these microbeads are promising systems for β-carotene vehiculation in food products without compromising their texture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grape seed extract (GSE) contain phenolic compounds that decrease the proclivity to various chronic diseases such as several types of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. The objective of the present study was to investigate the encapsulation of GSE polyphenols and their characterization. For this study, whey protein concentrate (WPC), maltodextrin (MD) and gum arabic (GA) were evaluated as encapsulating materials. For the preparation of stable microcapsules different WPC:MD/GA (5:0, 4:1, 3:2 and 0:5) ratios were assessed using ultrasonication for different time periods (20–40 min) followed by freeze drying. Encapsulation efficiency, antioxidant activity, particle size, surface morphology and release mechanism were determined. The GSE microcapsules coated with WPC:MD/GA ratio of 4:1 and 3:2 with core to coat ratio of 1:5 and prepared by sonication for 30 min were found to have highest encapsulation efficiency (87.90–91.13%) and the smallest particle size with maximum retention of antioxidant activity. Under optimized conditions, the low level release (43–49%) of phenolic compounds resulted under simulated gastric condition and significantly (p < 0.05) increased (88–92%) under simulated intestinal condition. Thus the results indicated blending of MD or GA with WPC improved the microencapsulation of GSE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanoencapsulation is a promising technology allowing miniaturized dosage and administration of valuable volatiles, degradable bioactives and biologicals. The produced nanoparticles display qualities such as a sustained availability of active constituents, targeted delivery and enhanced shelf stability. This review presents methods of nanoencapsulation and nanoemulsion, such as solvent evaporation–emulsification, coacervation, nanoprecipitation, inclusion complexation, electrospraying, electrospinning, freeze drying and spray drying. Those methods are particularly relevant for the pharmaceutical, food and agricultural industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to encapsulate avocado oil in ultrafine zein fibers by the electrospinning technique. Avocado oil, at concentrations of 15 and 30% (w/w), was incorporated into 20, 25 and 30% (w/v) zein polymer solutions. The polymer solutions were evaluated for viscosity and electrical conductivity. The zein fibers containing the avocado oil were evaluated for the efficiency of encapsulation, morphology and size distribution of diameter, FTIR-ATR and X-ray diffraction, as well as for the release of carotenoids in gastrointestinal conditions in vitro. At the concentration of 30% zein, continuous ultrafine fibers were obtained, without bead formation and with mean diameter distribution ranging from 618 to 971 nm, whose encapsulation efficiency was higher than 77%. The FTIR-ATR analysis showed the encapsulation of the oil, and X-ray diffraction showed the amorphous structure of the fibers. It was verified that the composite fiber of 30% of zein and 30% of oil had a release profile close to the ideal of carotenoid release under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water in oil in water (WOW) double emulsions are of great interest for the encapsulation of valuable substances. Nevertheless, the stabilization against inner water loss is still a challenging issue that impedes systematical research on the impact of the formulation. One common and applied technique to characterize the amount of inner water encapsulated in double emulsions is based on differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Thereby, WOW double emulsions are frozen and thawed according to a defined method and afterward the amount of encapsulated water is calculated based on the DSC measurement result. For systematical investigations on the formulations’ impact on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), structure stability during this freezing and thawing procedure is required to be independent of formulation changes, whereby the EE is defined as the ratio between the amount of inner water after a specific time and the initial amount of water used for preparation of the double emulsion. In this study, we focused on the structural stability of double emulsions during their characterization by DSC. We prepared WOW double emulsions with varied formulations and characterized them considering inner and outer droplet size distribution (laser diffraction), microstructure (microscope), and EE (DSC). In some cases, the EE values determined by DSC were not reproducible and contradicted microscopic pictures and measured droplet size distributions. By using a polarizing microscope with temperature-controlled sample chamber, structure changes during the freezing and thawing procedure could be observed. Contact-induced crystallization, water diffusion as well as the spread of the phase transition temperature are discussed as reasons for the barely reproducible and sometimes contradictory results. Based on our findings, it is recommended for further studies on double emulsions to examine the structure stability during the DSC measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The star-shaped poly(L-lactide) (s-PLLA) was synthesized via ring-opening polymerization of L-lactide, with xylitol as a multifunctional initiator and stannous octoate as a catalyst. The structures of s-PLLA were characterized by 1H NMR spectroscopy, while the molecular weight (Mw) and polydispersity index were determined by gel permeation chromatography. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) loaded s-PLLA microspheres were fabricated by a water-oil-water (W1/O/W2) double-emulsion solvent evaporation method. The morphology, drug encapsulation efficiency (EE), and in vitro release behavior of the prepared microspheres were studied in detail. Results indicated that the average diameters of s-PLLA microspheres could be controlled between 7 and 15 µm by varying the s-PLLA’s concentration or Mw, and the drug encapsulation efficiency of BSA-loaded microspheres were 10-42%. The in vitro study shows that the BSA-loaded microspheres prepared by high molecular weight s-PLLA had a slow cumulative release behavior in phosphate buffer saline (PBS, pH 7.4) and the release process followed the Baker-Lonsdale equation. Present work supposes that the synthesized s-PLLA is a good candidate for drug delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of selected process conditions for the sol-gel encapsulation of laccase enzymatic extract, obtained from Coriolus hirsutus, were investigated. Screening trials were carried out to identify the parameters having the most pertinent effects on the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and the residual laccase activity. These parameters included water/silane molar ratio (r), HCl content and protein loading, for the pre-gel silica sol as well as the required time for gel drying and for aging, for the sol-gel process. The experimental findings indicated that a sol-gel drying time of over 6 h resulted in a complete loss of laccase catalytic activity, while an increase in the gel aging time led to an enhancement of the residual enzyme activity. Except for r, the investigated parameters demonstrated no significant effect on the EE of the sol-gel encapsulated enzymatic extract. Overall, the encapsulation of laccase extract in the sol-gel matrix resulted in an enhancement of its catalytic activity, where its highest residual activity (349%) was obtained with an r-value of 4, an HCl content of 4 µmol and a protein loading of 1 mg/mL, using 6 and 24 h of drying and aging times, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Probiotic encapsulation is an entire system that not only involves but also depends on many factors. Elements such as the encapsulation method itself, materials, environmental conditions, and last, but not least, the strain; all play an important role in the encapsulation process. The current paper focuses on the right selection of probiotics, the various stress factors that impact the survival capacity of probiotics during and after encapsulation, and the rational selection of appropriate protection strategies to overcome these factors and achieve the highest possible encapsulation efficiency under optimal conditions. This review discusses the effects of temperature, moisture content, and water activity as well as pH, oxygen, and pressure on the viabilities of microorganisms. The effect of the surface and structure of the capsules on the encapsulated microorganisms and the impact of the materials used for the encapsulation are discussed as well. Last, but not least, the importance of choosing the right bacteria is reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports the investigation of liposomal formulations of lidocaine in the form of a free base (LID). LID was encapsulated into large multilamellar vesicles composed of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC). Samples of a mass ratio of LID with respect to DMPC ranging from 1 to 10% were investigated. The effects of the increasing LID concentration on the bilayer membrane were determined in terms of size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency (EE %) and partition coefficient. Furthermore, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies were also carried out to analyze the effect of LID on the liposome phase transition temperature and to calculate the EE % with an unfrequented method. The EE % results obtained by different experimental procedures were quite ambiguous, but the DSC measurements confirmed the ultracentrifugation direct method. The calculated partition coefficients of these two methods were in good agreement, too. Our research revealed a less known application field of DSC, as a fast and reliable tool to determine EE%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flavonoids such as quercetin (QCT) represent a diverse class of natural compounds with unique therapeutic potential in cancer and inflammatory diseases. However, their clinical efficacy is hindered by poor aqueous solubility and stability. This study describes the in vitro evaluation of QCT-encapsulated polymeric micelles based on methoxy polyethylene glycol- b-poly(D,L-lactide) (mPEG-PLA) and methoxy polyethylene glycol- b-poly(ε-caprolactone) (mPEG-PCL) copolymers as a drug delivery platform for QCT. The copolymers were synthesized in different molecular weights (MWs) of the hydrophobic blocks to investigate the effect of polymer type and MW on the micelle properties. All copolymers exhibited critical micelle concentrations (CMCs) in the micromolar range or lower and produced QCT-loaded micelles with particles sizes < 100 nm. mPEG5K-PLA3K, with the highest predicted compatibility with QCT as indicated by the Flory-Huggins interaction parameter, was able to achieve the highest loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency. Drug loading also exhibited a strong correlation with the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of the copolymers. In vitro release of the micelles followed a biphasic profile, with an initial burst phase followed by a controlled release phase, and showed a clear dependence on drug-copolymer compatibility and copolymer MW. This work represents the first report on the use of mPEG-PLA micelles to encapsulate QCT. It also emphasizes the importance of tuning formulation variables as they influence the properties of polymeric micelles for the design of a successful nanomedicine for QCT and similar drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytosterols are used to lower the blood cholesterol. β-Sitosterol is one of the most important phytosterols with very poor water solubility and bioaccessibility. The main goal of the current research was to investigate the effects of different emulsification variables (i.e. shear, time, pressure and cycle) on the physicochemical properties, release behaviour and encapsulation efficiency of β-sitosterol in water-in-oil-in water (W/O/W) emulsion. Initially, 19 β-sitosterol emulsions were prepared under different experimental conditions (shear 3000 and 6000 rpm; time 2.5 and 5 min; pressure 100, 200 and 300 bar; cycle 1-3). In this study, the β-sitosterol emulsion prepared at 6000 rpm, 5 min, 300 bar and 3 cycles had the smallest average droplet size (139 nm) among all prepared samples. The interaction between shear and time showed the most significant ( P < 0.05) effect on the polydispersity index (PDI) and turbidity of the β-sitosterol emulsion. Increasing homogenization pressure and cycle led to improving emulsion stability and encapsulation efficiency. The β-sitosterol emulsion homogenised at 100 bar for 1 cycle had the highest encapsulation efficiency (81.7%) among all samples. The optimization study showed that the emulsification at 300 bar for 3 cycles resulted in the most desirable β-sitosterol emulsion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the molecular characteristics of 4-α-glucanotransferase (4αGTase)-modified rice starch (MRS) and corn starch (MCS) gels and the NaCl release properties depending on their mechanical properties. Also, encapsulation efficiency (EE) and oil globule size of water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions containing MRS or MCS in the inner aqueous phase (W) with NaCl as a model core material were measured after preparation and 14 days of storage. The characteristics of MRS and MCS were examined by analyzing amylose content, molecular fine structure, microstructure, and mechanical properties to better understand their associations with emulsion stability. At 20 % concentration, the gel strength of MCS (~10 pa) was greater than that of MRS (~10 pa) as MCS had higher apparent amylose content than MRS. The rate of NaCl release from the gel was highly correlated with the gel strength that depended on the type and concentration of the enzymatically-modified starch. As the gel strength increased, EE of freshly prepared and stored W/O/W emulsions increased. Osmotic swelling of NaCl-containing W/O/W was significantly reduced with the incorporation of the modified starch gels in W phase. These results indicated that physicochemical properties of 4αGTase-modified starch gels in W/O/W emulsions largely affected the encapsulation efficiency and stability of the emulsions, which could be utilized to formulate W/O/W emulsions with improved stability and the potential for broader applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To design a useful lipid drug carrier having a high encapsulation efficiency ( EE%) for the antiprostate cancer drugs flutamide (FT) and nilutamide (NT), a lipid nano-emulsion (LNE) was prepared with soybean oil (SO), phosphatidylcholine (PC), and sodium palmitate, and the partition coefficients ( K s) of the drugs for the LNE were determined by F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry. The F NMR signal of the trifluoromethyl group of both drugs showed a downfield shift from an internal standard (trifluoroethanol) and broadening according to the increase in the lipid concentration due to their interaction with LNE particles. The difference in the chemical shift (Δ δ) of each drug caused by the addition of LNE was measured under different amounts of LNE, and the K values were calculated from the Δ δ values. The results showed that FT has higher lipophilicity than NT. The total lipid concentration (SO + PC) required to encapsulate each drug into LNE with an EE% of more than 95% was calculated from the K values as 93.3 and 189.9 mmol/L for FT and NT, respectively. For an LNE prepared with the total lipid concentration of 215 mmol/L, the predicted EE% values were 98 and 96% for FT and NT, respectively, while the experimental EE% values determined by a centrifugation method were approximately 99% for both drugs. Thus, the F NMR spectrometric method is a useful technique to obtain the K values of fluorinated drugs and thereby predict the theoretical lipid concentrations and prepare LNEs with high EE% values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rotenone is an active ingredient that has been widely used as pesticide. However, rotenone is poorly soluble in water. Therefore, a water-soluble carrier is needed. Here, we synthesised, characterised and applied oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan for the first time as a carrier agent for rotenone. Oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan is soluble in acidic, neutral and basic media. The critical micelle concentration of oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan is 0.096 mg/mL. Oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan formed self-aggregates and exhibited spherical shape with the values of 35.5-66.4 nm. We studied the encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan micelles with different weight ratios of oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan to rotenone. We found an encapsulation efficiency of 97 % and a loading capacity of 0.97 % for oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan/rotenone 100:1 w/w. Oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan released 96.00 % of the rotenone loaded within 50 h. Overall, our findings show the feasibility of oleoyl-carboxymethyl chitosan as a novel water-solubilising agent for pesticide formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to prepare a model protein, bovine serum albumin (BSA) loaded double-walled microspheres using a fast degrading glucose core, hydroxyl-terminated poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (Glu-PLGA) and a moderate-degrading carboxyl-terminated PLGA polymers to reduce the initial burst release and to eliminate the lag phase from the release profile of PLGA microspheres. The double-walled microspheres were prepared using a modified water-in-oil-in-oil-in-water (w/o/o/w) method and single-polymer microspheres were prepared using a conventional water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) emulsion solvent evaporation method. The particle size, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, thermal properties, in vitro drug release and structural integrity of BSA were evaluated in this study. Double-walled microspheres prepared with Glu-PLGA and PLGA polymers with a mass ratio of 1:1 were non-porous, smooth-surfaced, and spherical in shape. A significant reduction of initial burst release was achieved for the double-walled microspheres compared to single-polymer microspheres. In addition, microspheres prepared using Glu-PLGA and PLGA polymers in a mass ratio of 1:1 exhibited continuous BSA release after the small initial burst without any lag phase. It can be concluded that the double-walled microspheres made of Glu-PLGA and PLGA polymers in a mass ratio of 1:1 can be a potential delivery system for pharmaceutical proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to fabricate insulin-loaded double-walled and single-polymer poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microspheres using a fast degrading glucose core, hydroxyl-terminated poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (Glu-PLGA), and a moderate degrading carboxyl-terminated PLGA polymers. A modified water-in-oil-in-oil-in-water (w/o/o/w) emulsion solvent evaporation technique was employed to prepare double-walled microspheres, whereas single-polymer microspheres were fabricated by a conventional water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) emulsion solvent evaporation method. The effect of fabrication techniques and polymer characteristics on microspheres size, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro release, and insulin stability was evaluated. The prepared double-walled microspheres were essentially non-porous, smooth surfaced, and spherical in shape, whereas single-polymer microspheres were highly porous. Double-walled microspheres exhibited a significantly reduced initial burst followed by sustained and almost complete release of insulin compared to single-polymer microspheres. Initial burst release was further suppressed from double-walled microspheres when the mass ratio of the component polymers was increased. In conclusion, double-walled microspheres made of Glu-PLGA and PLGA can be a potential delivery system of therapeutic insulin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed at evaluating the performance of peony seed oil microencapsulated by spray drying during encapsulation and storage. Four different combinations of gum arabic (GA), corn syrup (CS), whey protein concentrate (WPC) and sodium caseinate (CAS) were used to encapsulate peony seed oil. The best encapsulation efficiency was obtained for CAS/CS followed by the CAS/GA/CS combination with the encapsulation ratio of 93.71 and 92.80 %, respectively, while the lowest encapsulation efficiency was obtained for WPC/GA/CS (85.96 %). Scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that the particles were spherical in shape and did not exhibit apparent cracks or fissures, and gum arabic was uniformly distributed across the wall of the microcapsules. Oxidative stability study indicated that the CAS/GA/CS combination presented the best protection against lipid oxidation and the smallest loss of polyunsaturated fatty acid content among all of the formulas as measured by gas chromatography. Therefore, CAS/GA/CS could be promising materials encapsulate peony seed oil with high encapsulation efficiency and minimal lipid oxidation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of crude palm oil microencapsulation by spray drying to preserve the oil's characteristics such as carotenoid content, antioxidant activity, fatty acid, and peroxide value and improve its technological process as thermal stability and oxidative stability for possible use as a food fortifier. Capsules were generated from emulsions with different wall material combinations and then dried at 180 °C. The best wall material combination was cassava starch with gum arabic because it provided good encapsulation efficiency and yield and moisture content. Thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry analyses indicated that the microcapsules had satisfactory thermal stability. The fatty acid profile and color parameters did not change with oil microencapsulation. However, total carotenoids, antioxidant activity, and peroxide value changed with encapsulation. In conclusion, crude palm oil remains an important source of bioactive compounds, such as pro-vitamin A, which have various functions in the body and these microcapsules can be used on food industry fortification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cadmium sulphoselenide was synthesized continuous substitution solid solution and the only known pigment to yield bright red color on ceramic decoration. Encapsulated cadmium sulphoselenide pigments could yield abundant hues from yellow to red with high opacity at high temperature. The color generation has a linear function relation with the substitution rate. The encapsulation formation process of zirconium silicate encapsulated cadmium sulphoselenide was shown. Insufficient encapsulation efficiency and potential hazard to human and environment had limited the industrial application of cadmium sulphoselenide red pigment. Ink-jet printing decoration required fine size cadmium sulphoselenide red pigment on ceramic decoration. The review mainly focused on the synthesis techniques and industrial application of cadmium sulphoselenide red pigment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

β-carotene, a potent antioxidant, has been encapsulated and slow release (SR) formulations were prepared using laboratory synthesized poly(ethylene glycols) (PEGs) based functionalized amphiphilic copolymers. Encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of the developed formulations were determined which ranged from 22.60 to 28.08 % and 2.2 to 2.8 % respectively. The release kinetics of β-carotene from developed formulations in water revealed increased solubility and prolonged stability of β-carotene. The formulations were further subjected to different pH conditions (viz., 1.8, 6.8 and 7.8) corresponding to human gastrointestinal tract to study the effect of pH on the release of β-carotene. The diffusion exponent (n values) ranged from the 0.1540 to 0.2342 for developed formulation . The results showed that developed slow release formulations were unaffected by the highly acidic conditions referring to the gastric environment of human body. However, the release of β-carotene was high at pH 7.8 and slightly higher at pH 6.8. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Catechin-loaded calcium alginate microparticles with high encapsulation and loading efficiencies were prepared using two types of soaking methods; swelling and absorption methods. The soaking methods, respectively, showed approximately 2.4× and 21.7× higher encapsulation and loading efficiencies than the conventional method. Compared with the swelling method, the absorption method showed significantly ( p<0.05) higher encapsulation and loading efficiencies that were controlled in the range of 10.6-51.6 and 4.9-38.2%, respectively, under different preparation conditions, including alginate viscosity, blank particle quantity, and the catechin concentration. The absorption method also showed better sustained release in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids and a smaller particle size with uniform morphological properties than the swelling method. The absorption method is a promising method for microencapsulation of catechin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oil in water emulsions were produced by the mixture of culled banana resistant starch (CBRS) & soy protein isolate (SPI), mixture of Hylon VII & SPI and SPI with 7.5 and 5 % (w/w) Menhaden fish oil. The emulsions were further freeze- dried obtaining 33 and 50 % oil load microcapsules. The range of particles diameter was 4.11 to 7.25 μm and viscosity was 34.6 to 146.48 cP of the emulsions. Compressibility index (CI), Hasner ratio (HR) and angle of repose (AR) was significantly ( p < 0.01) lower of the microcapsules made with starch and protein (CBRS & SPI and Hylon VII & SPI) than that made with protein (SPI) only. Microcapsules composed of CBRS & SPI with 33 % oil load had maximum microencapsulation efficiency (82.49 %) and highest oxidative stability. Muffin made with emulsions containing mixture of CBRS & SPI exhibited less fishy flavour than that containing mixture of Hylon VII & SPI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PLGA, mPEG diblock copolymer was synthesized by bulk ring-opening polymerization method. The double emulsion solvent evaporation method was used to prepare bovine serum albumin (BSA)-loaded microspheres. Optical microscopy was used to observe the whole microsphere fabrication process. It is confirmed that the proportion of inner aqueous phase is one of the most critical factors that determines the morphology of microspheres. Double emulsion droplets which have appropriate amount of inner aqueous phase can form closed and dense microspheres, while, too much inner aqueous phase will cause a collapse of the double emulsion droplets, resulting in a loss of drug. The proportion of inner aqueous phase was varied to prepare microspheres of different morphology. The results show that with increasing the amount of inner aqueous phase, a higher percent of broken microspheres and lower encapsulation efficiency appeared, and also, a more severe initial burst release and faster release rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat germ oil (WGO) is beneficial for health since it is a rich source of omega-3, omega-6 and tocopherol. However, as it contains polyunsaturated fatty acids, it is prone to oxidation. The aim of this study was to encapsulate wheat germ oil and determine the effects of core to coating ratio, coating materials ratio and ultrasonication time on particle size distribution of emulsions and encapsulation efficiency (EE) and surface morphology of capsules. Maltodextrin (MD) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) at different ratios (3:1, 2:2, 1:3) were used as coating materials. Total solid content of samples was 40 % (w/w). Five core to coating ratios (1:8, 1:4, 1:2, 3:4, 1:1) were tried. Ultrasound was used at 320 W and 20 kHz for 2, 5, 10 min to obtain emulsions. Then, emulsions were freeze dried to obtain microcapsules. It was observed that, increasing WPC ratio in the coating resulted in higher encapsulation efficiency and smaller particle size. Microcapsules prepared with MD:WPC ratio of 1:3 were found to have higher EE (74.35-89.62 %). Increase in oil load led to decrease in EE. Thus 1:8 core to coating ratio gave better results. Increasing ultrasonication time also had a positive effect on encapsulation efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]