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Based on social cognitive processes (Bandura, 2009), sexualizing media likely provide adolescents with credible role models for their own sexualized self-presentation in other mediated contexts, such as sexting. A survey of 6,093 US adolescents was conducted (Mage = 15.27 years, SD = 1.37; 69.1% cisgender girls; 26.8% cisgender boys, 4.2% gender-minority participants) to examine relations between three types of sexualizing media exposure (reality television, music videos, pornography) and active sexting behaviors (i.e., requesting and sending). Among cisgender boys, exposure to sexually oriented reality television was positively related to active sexting behaviors, but this link was not found for cisgender girls or gender-minority participants. Music video exposure was related to active sexting behaviors only among cisgender boys and pornography consumption was positively related to active sexting behaviors among all gender groups. A positive outcome expectancy (i.e., sexting is fun) consistently mediated these relations. A negative outcome expectancy (i.e., sexting is risky) only mediated the relations between pornography consumption and active sexting behaviors among cisgender girls. Results are discussed in light of social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2009) and the 3AM Model (Wright, 2011). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing popularity and availability of virtual reality (VR) video games, the representation of women within these immersive environments becomes crucial to explore. Although the sexualization of female characters in traditional video games has been widely studied, the sensory-rich nature of VR may introduce changes in character representations and emergent adverse outcomes. In the present study we content analyzed female characters in popular VR video games to investigate the potential underrepresentation and misrepresentation of female characters. Results demonstrated that male characters were represented four times more frequently than female characters. The underrepresentation of female characters was more severe in competitive VR games than casual VR games, however there was no significant difference in the underrepresentation of women between game genres or ESRB ratings. In addition, female characters were presented in a sexualized manner in 30% of cases. The sexualization of female characters was associated with their portrayal as physically capable, violent, or a victim. We also found that sexualization of female characters did not differ based on the type of game (casual vs. competitive), game genres, or ESRB ratings. We discussed these findings in immersive VR video games in comparison with those in traditional 2-D screen media video games. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Celebrity teenage girls are routinely sexualized in the media, but it is unclear whether these depictions are tolerable because it is relatively more socially acceptable to exploit celebrities. This study presents the results of an experiment comparing readers' (N = 237) responses to two nearly identical versions of a fashion article sexualizing a teen girl identified as either a celebrity or non-celebrity. Even though participants in both conditions correctly identified the teen as being a minor, they deemed the article that sexualized a non-celebrity as being more inappropriate than the same article sexualizing a celebrity. However, perceptions of fame did not mediate this effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-binary people simultaneously identify outside the binary and experience the consequences of living in societies that embrace the gender binary to varying levels. The current study used a qualitative, interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach to understand how non-binary people experience sexual objectification, which historically has focused on binary gender assumptions and populations. A sample of 10 non-binary people in the United States participated in 45–90-minute individual semi-structured interviews related to their sexual objectification experiences (SOE). Three broad categories of findings emerged from the analysis: (1) the intersectional and ubiquitous nature of SOE; (2) the embodied and burdensome impact of SOE; and (3) individual and communal acts of resistance against SOE. Participants highlighted difficulties navigating multiple marginalized identities through SOE, such as racialized fetishization and being perceived as women. Participants offered vivid descriptions of what SOE does to them physically, such as increasing chronic pain, anxiety, and dissociation. Individuals and communities reclaimed their bodies and built community in resistance to SOE. Understanding the unique SOE experiences of non-binary people may provide information for counseling psychologists to build affirming interventions that are tailored to non-binary people managing SOEs. Implications for future research on the experiences of SOE among non-binary people are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present study was to examine gender stereotypes and sexualization in Italian television advertisements aimed at children. For this purpose, content analysis method was used to analyze 185 commercials broadcast from 6 pm to 8:30 pm over the three Italian television channels dedicated to children which attract the largest audience share. In order to allow comparison with previous research on gender stereotyping, two raters coded a series of variables common to similar investigations (i.e., verbs used in the ads, voice-over, voice-over message, setting, pace of the ads, activities performed by the main characters). Results indicate that gender stereotypes are still prevalent in Italian children's television commercials. Furthermore, although the level of sexualization of children is low, we found that girls tend to be more sexualized than boys, especially in terms of "adultification." Our findings provide an updated picture of children's advertising in Italy by also expanding the literature on gender role stereotyping and sexualization in television commercials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In three survey experiments, we considered the role of stereotypes in blame assessments related to "undeserving" poor and Black women. U.S. participants (Study 1: N = 229 [mean age = 19]; Study 2: N = 200 [mean age = 42]; Study 3: N = 285 [mean age = 51]) read one vignette about a woman's sexual assault experience. We manipulated the identity of the woman as being either a member of the "deserving" or "undeserving" poor and as racially Black or white. Participants were asked to assess the woman's blame, characteristics of respectability (sexualization and responsibility), and value as a person. Across all 3 studies, participants were more likely to stereotype the undeserving poor women as more sexualized, less responsible, and of less value. They were also more likely to blame the undeserving poor women for sexual assault compared to the deserving poor women, and this relationship was mediated to varying degrees by these stereotypes. Because of the demonstrated importance of victim-blaming in sustaining problematic treatment of women, and in attitudes toward the poor, we also assessed people's blame-attributions for sexual assault toward lower-income women. Findings illustrated that blame attribution and stereotype application were indeed particularly likely for those presented as "undeserving" poor women. The current research continues to make the argument for the importance of considering the role of social class in people's perceptions of women's experiences of sexual assault. Future research needs to consider the role that these perceptions play in policy, institutions, and lived experiences among poor women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the influence of the sexualization of victims' appearance on bystanders' helping intentions when witnessing an online harassment episode, considering the mediation of victim blaming. Two hundred and ninety participants read a fictitious Facebook post of the victim describing the online harassment episode. According to the experimental condition, the scenario was accompanied by a picture of the female (vs. male) victim with a sexualized (vs. non-sexualized) appearance. Then, participants rated the seriousness of the episode, the extent to which they blamed the victim for the online harassment, and expressed their willingness to help the victim. Results showed that sexualized victims, regardless of their gender, were blamed more for their victimization, and this evaluation, in turn, lowered participants' willingness to help the victims. In conclusion, linking the literature on the antecedents and the consequences of victim blaming, we extended the knowledge providing evidence that the biased perception of victims' physical appearance produces concrete consequences for mistreated individuals. Practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study used in-depth interviews to explore adolescent girls' perceptions of sexualized images they typically find when using social media. Twenty-four participants aged 14–17 years described sexualized images of females as normalized on social media. The interplay between gendered and social norms that endorsed and rewarded girls for posting sexualized images was seen to influence an expectation for girls to conform with their peers and post such images of themselves. They indicated sexualized images emphasize personal value on appearance and rejected this notion. However, participants also believed girls should be able to post sexualized images of themselves if they wanted to. There were tensions between whether girls' sharing of sexualized images of themselves on social media would be interpreted as a display of confidence (socially acceptable) or attention seeking (socially unacceptable). Findings provide guidance for the development of health promotion programs to reduce potential harm from social media use by adolescent girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very little is known about viewers' attitudes toward sexualized portrayals of men on social media platforms. Using an experimental methodology, the present study investigated the effect of a sexualized versus non-sexualized Tinder profile of a young White man on college students' perceptions of the profile owner. The impact of multiple aspects of sexualization including a self-sexualizing self-description on one's profile (i.e., interested in casual sex) as well as a sexualizing appearance (i.e., muscular and shirtless) were investigated. U.S. college students (N = 567) viewed a mock Tinder profile and then rated the target's competence, social appeal, physical attractiveness, and likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behavior. Findings indicate a young White man with a sexualized self-presentation on a dating app may be perceived as less competent and as a sexual risk-taker. These results contribute to the small body of research documenting the impact of self-sexualization on a dating app profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fraternities and sororities are popular organizations within university life. Even though their activities are usually secretive and protected, social media offer a chance for the public to understand these groups. In the present study, we investigated how sexualization is communicated on fraternities' location pages on Instagram. Applying a multi-dimensional coding scheme composed of 12 sexualization variables, we analyzed 600 Greek life posts from 49 fraternities. Among the posts, we found (a) body shots, (b) revealing clothing, (c) sexualized mouths, and (d) breasts/chests to be the most frequently used sexualization cues. In addition, there was a positive association between the number of sexualization cues in a post and the number of likes the post received. The results also point to gender differences: fraternity posts portraying only women included a greater number of sexualization cues, on average, than posts showing only men or mixed genders. Also, gender of individuals in the pictures moderated the relationships between sexualized mouths/buttocks and likes. Implications for gender inequality and risks of sexualization are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copious research has shown that sexualized and stereotypical portrayals of women in the media are the norm, but there is a gap in the literature regarding the portrayal of lesbians. The aim of this study was to assess how lesbians see themselves and their relationships portrayed in the media. A second aim of this study was to experimentally test whether exposure to a sexualized portrayal of a lesbian increases self-objectification while decreasing mood, self-esteem, and body image. A third goal was to explore the role of race in lesbian perceptions of media portraying lesbians. A sample of 178 lesbian women were recruited via the online survey platform Prolific Academic to participate in a study with quantitative and qualitative components. Results indicated that the hot lesbian was the most common portrayal, as predicted, and the most frequently reported stereotype of lesbian relationships was the idea of lesbians moving too quickly in their relationships, especially among White participants. Qualitative findings revealed that lesbians found media portrayals mostly negative and stereotypical, in that they were hypersexualized and for the male gaze, with lesbian relationships portrayed as temporary. Experimental exposure to a sexualized portrayal of a lesbian caused decreased body area satisfaction but did not affect self-objectification, mood, self-esteem, or overall appearance evaluation. Most findings did not vary by race, but those that did reflected racialized stereotypes. The impact of stereotypical portrayals of lesbians in the media should continue to be examined in both lesbian and outgroup populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, there have been a number of studies examining the sexualization of female characters in various media. However, most studies to date have not clearly delineated whether sexualized images or the presence of assertive versus passive female characters influences negative attitudes toward women in viewers, as well as female viewer anxiety. The present study investigated whether the inclusion of powerful female characters in movies with sexualized content influences both male and female viewers' attitudes towards women as well as anxiety responses of female reviewers. Participants included 134 undergraduate students attending a private liberal arts university in the southern region of the United States. Participants were randomized to watch one of three movie conditions: first, movies that involve strong female lead characters, but which also include sexualized characters, Second, movies that involve strong female lead characters without sexualization and third, movies that involve sexualized female characters without strong portrayals (i.e. damsels in distress). Participants were measured on attitudes toward women, rape myth acceptance and anxiety. Results indicated little support for the view that sexualized media impacted viewers' attitudes toward women, rape myth acceptance or anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a between-participants experimental paradigm, the present study investigated U.S. adolescent boys' (n = 96) and college men's (n = 194) attitudes toward media images of male athletes as well as their thoughts about the athletes. Participants viewed either sexualized (i.e., skin exposed, sexual pose) or performance (i.e., in uniform and in action poses on the field/court) images of male athletes. They then rated the athletes' competence, esteem, and sexual appeal and completed a writing task about their reactions to the images. Male viewers rated the sexualized athletes lower in competence and esteem and higher in sexual appeal compared to the performance athletes. These results have implications for advocacy efforts calling for less sexualization in today's media environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Media images often present one idealized type of woman: she is thin, sexualized, and White. Although research has shown that there are stereotypes associated with sexualized women, known research has not addressed whether these stereotypes vary based on other characteristics such as body type and race. The current study aimed to examine the stereotypes associated with women who varied in sexualization, as well as body size and race, and whether participants' characteristics moderated these stereotypes. U.S. college-aged students (n = 500: 101 men, 393 women, 6 unknown) completed measures of gender stereotypes and rated the attributes of women who varied in sexualization (sexualized vs. non-sexualized clothing), body size (thin vs. plus-sized), and race (Black vs. White). Results suggest that body size is more salient than sexualization and stereotypes about sexualized women are differentially applied to White and Black women. Additionally, participants' gender and race moderated stereotype ratings. Lastly, viewing sexualized images was related to higher endorsement of sexualized gender stereotypes, but only in women. Taken together our results highlight that research on sexualization should address important intersectional components, such as race and body size. We also discuss broader implications of our results on lessening stereotyping and weight stigma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To test the "sex sells" assumption, we examined how Italian men and women react to sexualized advertising. Women showed lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward products presented with sexualized female models than with neutral ads, whereas men were unaffected by ads' sexualization (Study 1, n = 251). Study 2 (n = 197) replicated the overall results. Study 3 (n = 198) tested hostile sexism as a moderator as well as negative emotions as a mediator of consumers' responses. Especially men with higher hostile sexism showed more purchase intentions after viewing female sexualized ads than neutral ads. Moreover, women's lower consumer responses toward sexualized female ads were due to higher negative emotions. Study 4 (n = 207) included ads with both female and male models, replicating responses to female sexualization and showing that both women and men had lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward male sexualized ads than neutral ads. Replicating and extending Study 3's results, women's negative emotions was the mediator. The present study has practical implications for marketers because it suggests that "sex does not sell." In addition, considering both the psychological damage and practical inefficacy of sexualized ads, our findings have important implications for public policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of research has demonstrated negative effects of sexualization in the media on adolescents' body image, but longitudinal studies and research including interactive and social media are scarce. The current study explored the longitudinal associations of adolescents' use of sexualized video games (SVG) and sexualized Instagram images (SII) with body image concerns. Specifically, our study examined relations between adolescents' SVG and SII use and appearance comparisons, thin- and muscular-ideal internalization, valuing appearance over competence, and body surveillance. A sample of 660 German adolescents (327 female, 333 male; Mage = 15.09 years) participated in two waves with an interval of 6 months. A structural equation model showed that SVG and SII use at Time 1 predicted body surveillance indirectly via valuing appearance over competence at Time 2. Furthermore, SVG and SII use indirectly predicted both thin- and muscular-ideal internalization through appearance comparisons at Time 1. In turn, thin-ideal internalization at Time 1 predicted body surveillance indirectly via valuing appearance over competence at Time 2. The results indicate that sexualization in video games and on Instagram can play an important role in increasing body image concerns among adolescents. We discuss the findings with respect to objectification theory and the predictive value of including appearance comparisons in models explaining the relation between sexualized media and self-objectification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the growing interest in the experiences of transgender individuals, the phenomenon of fetishization of transgender bodies and identities has been overlooked. The present study was aimed at investigating the experiences of fetishization of transgender and nonbinary (TGNB) people. Participants in the current study represent a sample of 142 TGNB volunteers from the community who answered the prompt: "If you feel comfortable, could you describe your experience of being fetishized?" Using thematic analysis, we developed three overarching themes relevant to the experiences of fetishization of TGNB participants: (1) context of fetishization; (2) negative experiences of fetishization; and (3) positive or ambiguous experiences of fetishization. The results demonstrated that, in most cases, fetishization was understood by TGNB people as a negative experience of sexual objectification, although some individuals experienced fetishization as a positive experience, perceiving the sexual desire of the other person or living it as a kink. Consistent with the integrated theory of dehumanization, the results demonstrated that both sexual objectification and minority stress contributed to participants' understanding of fetishization for TGNB individuals. Implications for clinical work with TGNB individuals are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Slasher films are known for their graphic depictions of sex, brutalization and death. Many argue that these films sexualize and punish female characters. A content analysis of 48 influential slasher films from the 1960s to 2010s was conducted to evaluate the presentation of women in these films. Sexualization (measured via specific acts and total sexualization), strength, flaws, brutalization, and fate were coded for 252 female characters. Results indicate that purity was significantly related to lower brutalization and lower rates of death for all women. Within each role (hero, killer, and potential/actual victim), unique portrayals of sexuality and related repercussions emerge. Female killers were most commonly portrayed having sex, heroes were most sexually dressed, and actual/potential victims were brutalized and killed most for their sexualization. These messages reinforce ideas of gender roles, stereotypes, and relationship expectations by punishing female sexualization and demonizing female sex. Issues of violence against women, toxic masculinity, rape culture, and the normalization of combining violence and sex are discussed as significant concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using an experimental methodology, the present study investigated college students' attitudes toward media images of female athletes. We are particularly focused on how viewers perceive media images of female athletes that have both an appearance and athleticism focus, such as those found in ESPN's The Body Issue. An aim of our study was to assess viewers' attitudes toward these images that are not purely objectified, thereby contributing to the objectification literature and providing empirical data relevant to theorizing on the social impact of these images. U.S. college students (n = 563) viewed one of four types of images of the same athletes including: (a) sexualized athletes, (b) sexualized performance athletes (in which both athleticism and sexualization are present), (c) sport performance athletes (in which athletes are depicted playing their sport), or (d) non-sexualized athletes. They then rated the athletes' competence, esteem, and sexual appeal. Overall, sexualized performance athletes were rated more positively than sexualized athletes, but less positively than sport performance athletes. These results have implications for advocacy efforts calling for more media coverage in which women are depicted as athletes rather than as sexual objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectification theory suggests that sexualization has significant dehumanizing consequences for how perceivers see women. To date, research has mostly documented how sexualized bodies in the mass media are objectified and dehumanized. The purpose of the present work was to test the novel cosmetics dehumanization hypothesis (CDH), that is, that subtler manifestations of sexualization, such as heavy makeup, might influence the way people attribute humanness-related traits to women. Across four experiments, 1000 participants (mostly from the United Kingdom and United States) were asked to evaluate women's faces with or without heavy makeup. Consistent with the CDH, results showed that faces with makeup were rated as less human while using complementary indicators of dehumanization: They were perceived as possessing less humanness, less agency, less experience (Experiment 1), less competence, less warmth, and less morality (Experiments 2–4) than faces without makeup. This pattern of results was observed for faces of both models (Experiments 1–2) and ordinary women (Experiments 3–4). In Experiment 4, we manipulated the part of the face that wore makeup (eye makeup vs. lipstick) and found that faces with eye makeup were attributed the least amount of warmth and competence. A meta-analysis based on Experiments 2–4 confirmed the robustness of the findings, which were not moderated by either participant gender or sexual orientation. Whereas prior studies suggested that a focus on faces may serve as an antidote for objectification and related dehumanization, the present set of experiments indicates that this strategy might not always be effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concerns about sexualization of Halloween costumes appear frequently in the lay press, but systematic investigation of such costumes or the ads in which they appear is relatively rare. We coded a randomly selected sample of 1001 advertisements for child, teen, and adult Halloween costumes for 13 different markers of sexualization that we combined into overall scores for costume sexualization, model sexualization, and hypersexualization. We found that ratings of model characteristics and costume were significantly more sexualized when the model was adult and female. Significant interactions indicated that model characteristics and costumes of male models were low in sexualization regardless of age, whereas model characteristics and costumes featuring female models were rated more sexualized than those for male models, even for child models, and sexualization ratings increased with age. A measure of hypersexualization (combining costume and model characteristic ratings and adding text sexualization) showed that hypersexualization is highest in advertisements featuring female and adult models while being low for male models across all three age groups. However, hypersexualization ratings were not significantly different for teen and adult women, indicating some compression of sexualization into adolescence. Our results could be used by parents, educators, or counselors interested in media literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While all girls and women experience sexualization, these experiences differ based on a range of individual-level factors to structural contexts. For marginalized populations of women, such as those on the streets, sexualization can take on a particularly pivotal role. Using in-depth interviews with formerly street-involved women, the study explores the processes through which the street context reified the participants' dependence on their "sexual capital" in order to survive. While they did exercise some agency over their bodies, the ability to make decisions in this regard dissipated as they became more tethered to street life. Dependence on sexual capital preserved street dynamics that disempowered and damaged them vis-à-vis men, a vulnerable status which effectively sustained the arrangement that harmed them. Control over participants' sexual capital was usurped by others on the streets as they were traded, sold, and victimized by violence. Ultimately, participants' experiences suggest that sexual capital is central to the gendered scaffolding upon which the street context is constructed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of research documents the adverse effects of sexualized appearance on people's attitudes toward women victims of blatant forms of gender violence. However, the impact of sexualization of women victims of subtle forms of gender violence and the moderating role of people's conservativism on victim blaming remain under-investigated. In the current study, we examined the effects of sexualization on blame attribution to victims of a stranger harassment incident, considering the moderating role of participants' Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA). Two hundred and thirty-six participants (31.8% male; Mage = 30.52, SD = 12.70) completed an RWA scale and then read a fictitious Facebook's post where the victim herself described the stranger harassment episode that happened down the street (vs. at a house party). The post was presented with a sexualized (vs. non-sexualized) portrayal of the victim. Finally, participants rated the severity of the episode and expressed to what extent they blamed the victim. As predicted, harassment at the house party (vs. down the street) was perceived as less severe, and sexualized (vs. non-sexualized) victims were blamed to a greater extent. Our major results revealed that people's RWA synergizes with the victim's sexualization in shaping blame attribution. People with an average and a high level of RWA tend to blame to a greater extent the sexualized victim of stranger harassment, while blame attributions did not change according to victim's sexualization for people with a low level of RWA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free online sexually explicit materials have become the major way for pornography viewers to consume pornographic materials. Most previous content analytic studies have focused on aggression and degradation behaviors in sexually explicit materials. Fewer studies have focused on the prevalence of depictions of individual sexual behaviors, overlooking that pornographic materials not only show viewers individual sexual behaviors but also provide sexual scripts, which contain a series of co-occurring sexual behaviors. Using the network analysis method, the current study examined the co-occurrence patterns of a large number of sexual behaviors depicted in free online sexually explicit materials. The study has revealed the primary sexual script depicted in popular online sexually explicit materials and predicted the potential effects of such a script. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People who self-objectify perceive their bodies as objects which exist for the pleasure of others. Personality traits are important factors that might moderate the pathway between self-objectification and body image concerns. In the present paper, we explore if narcissism moderates this relationship, and we do so by exploring the facets of grandiose narcissism (associated with an inflated sense of self-importance) and hypersensitive narcissism (a more defensive and insecure narcissism). A convenience sample of 277 young Australian women (Mage = 21.34 years, SD = 3.25, range = 18-30) completed an online battery comprising measures of self-objectification, subclinical grandiose and hypersensitive narcissism, and measures designed to capture concerns related to body image. We found that hypersensitive narcissism, but not grandiose narcissism, predicted higher levels of self-objectification. Grandiose narcissism scores predicted lower levels of body shame and less weight discrepancy, indicating more positive body image, and also moderated the relationship between self-objectification and body shame (i.e., women who report lower levels of narcissism are more vulnerable to body shame associated with self-objectification). In contrast, hypersensitive narcissism scores predicted higher levels of both body shame and discrepancies in actual-ideal weight. These findings suggest that grandiose narcissism may have a protective relationship regarding body image in this population, whereas hypersensitive narcissism may be a risk factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated how task demand (cognitive load and interactivity) and avatar sexualization in a video game influenced rape myth acceptance (RMA), hostile sexism, and self-objectification. In a between-subjects design, 300 U.S. college students either played or watched someone else play a videogame as either a sexualized or non-sexualized female avatar under high (memorize 7 symbols) or low (memorize 2 symbols) cognitive load. Hypotheses were derived from the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP) and perspectives on stereotype processing. Results contradicted hypotheses that greater task demands and sexualization would produce greater RMA, hostile sexism, and self-objectification. Instead, we found that sexualization did not affect these variables. Greater cognitive load reduced rape myth acceptance and hostile sexism for those in the sexualized avatar condition, but it did not affect self-objectification. We discuss these results with respect to the LC4MP and suggest that the processing of stereotype-inconsistent information might be the underlying cause of these unexpected findings. These results provide tentative evidence that cognitively demanding video game environments may prompt players to focus on stereotype-inconsistent, rather than stereotype-consistent, social information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectification of the female body is generating much research. Nevertheless, this has revealed little about whether women’s evaluations depend on the level of psychological intimacy with the perpetrator of that objectification. Intimacy theory predicts that objectifying comments would seem more acceptable coming from a close partner, especially for sexist women. The present study begins to fill these gaps by analyzing responses from 301 heterosexual/bisexual adult women in the United States (Mage = 37.02, range = 18-72) to appearance and sexual body comments made by four different male perpetrators: strangers, colleagues, friends, or partners. Measures assessed women’s perceptions of objectification, as well as reported enjoyment of these comments. As long as they were not negative, comments from heterosexual partners were perceived as the least objectifying and enjoyed the most; comments from colleagues, strangers, and friends were linked with greater objectification and less enjoyment. Additionally, sexist attitudes toward men and women—but more clearly toward men—linked with objectification and enjoyment. Future research directions and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexualization in mass media is a widespread phenomenon. Although sexualization and sexual objectification are often used as synonymous, they are two different concepts. Across two studies, we investigated how sexualization affects perceptions of women (Study 1) and men (Study 2) as sexual objects. Participants were asked to judge sexual objectification, competence, and sexiness of female and male models portrayed with different degrees of sexualization, namely, as Non-Revealing (dressed), merely Revealing (undressed), and Sexualized Revealing (undressed and provocative). The results of both studies showed that as the level of sexualization increased so did participants’ perceptions of the targets as sexual objects. However, the level of sexualization affected perceived competence and sexiness differently depending on the target’s gender. Male models’ competence decreased as the level of sexualization increased, whereas female models portrayed as merely Revealing and as Sexualized Revealing were judged as equally incompetent. Male targets’ sexiness was not affected by the level of portrayals’ sexualization, whereas Sexualized Revealing portrayals enhanced the perceived sexiness of female targets. Finally, in Study 2, the results showed that male targets in Sexualized Revealing portrayals were judged as less masculine. Our findings suggest that sexualization contributes similarly to the perception of both women and men as sexual objects but affects other variables depending on the target’s gender. Our work extends previous literature and informs us about the consequences that sexualization of men and women have on others’ judgments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the current study was to replicate and extend prior research on the impact of media images of athletes on women and men. We used an experimental design to investigate the effects of viewing sexualized or performance images of athletes on viewers' self-objectification and physicality, as well as to explore moderators of these relationships. Participants (227 women, 193 men U.S. undergraduates) viewed either performance images or sexualized images of the same athletes, and then they completed measures of self-objectification, engagement with professional athletes, and self-reported participation in conversations with peers focused on appearance. For both men and women, viewing sexualized images increased self-objectification, whereas viewing performance images increased physicality self-descriptors. For women only, reporting peer appearance conversations increased their self-objectification but only after viewing sexualized images. These results highlight the potentially negative effects of sexualized media on both men and women, and they suggest that the prevalence of these images in popular media are problematic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women are surrounded by sexualized imagery as well as cultural narratives that dictate their sexual behavior. These diverse cultural narratives include: women are sexually passive, women should desire sex and be sexually empowered, and women are expected to navigate ambivalent societal messages regarding their sexuality. In our study, we explored how college-aged young women describe and understand their first exposure to a sexual image. This mixed methods study, guided by critical feminism, addresses how young women, reflecting on their experiences since girlhood, have navigated changing cultural standards for female sexuality in light of complex negotiations among varying expectations. We examined 445 young women's written reflections on seeing a sexual image for the first time. Most of the women reported that this experience occurred when they were in elementary school, and at home with friends, family, or alone. We found four themes of reactions to seeing the image for the first time: unwanted, intrigued, ambivalent, and neutral. Implications for comprehensive sex education include the need for teachers, parents, and other trusted adults to provide accurate and age-appropriate knowledge and opportunities for discussion about sexuality. Limitations and future directions are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, I utilize objectification theory and compulsory heterosexuality as theoretical lenses to investigate lesbian and bisexual young Women of Color's sexual objectification experiences. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Black and Latina 16-19 year-old young women who identified as lesbian or bisexual. Using the Listening Guide method of narrative analysis, two voices pertaining to young women's objectification experiences were identified: a Voice of Surveillance and a Voice of Self-Surveillance. Findings suggest that young women experienced sexual objectification as rooted in their gender, sexuality, and racial identities. Experiences were further shaped by the contexts in which objectification occurred: participants voiced distinct struggles navigating (a) sexual harassment and violence in relationships with peers and romantic partners, (b) sexual harassment and discipline in school, and (c) street harassment and violence from men. Findings highlight the importance of understanding sexual objectification experiences as they are informed by gender, sexuality, and race, as well as the ways that young women actively cope with and resist objectification. Psychologists, activists, and mental health professionals are encouraged to consider how sexual objectification is rooted in multiple forms of oppression, its implications for young women's identity, desire, and well-being, and how young women can be supported as they struggle against it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, elements of the modern environment (such as television, Internet, toys and clothes) have been criticized for having an increasingly sexualized or appearance focus, which has been suggested to be detrimental to girls' development. The current study examined the impact of an appearance-focused Internet game on young girls' body image and career cognitions and aspirations. Eighty British girls aged 8-9 years were randomly assigned to play an appearance-focused or a non-appearance focused game for 10 minutes. Girls in the appearance-focused game condition displayed greater body dissatisfaction compared to the control condition. Type of game did not impact girls' perceived capacity to do various jobs. However, girls who played the appearance-focused game reported a greater preference for feminine careers compared to the control group. This provides preliminary evidence that appearance-focused Internet games may be detrimental to young girls' body image and aspirations. Internet games should be included in our consideration of influential messages for young girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS) is a prominent measure of key constructs in the body image literature. Despite the impact and popularity of the OBCS, however, investigations of its factor structure have been limited. To our knowledge, the present study is the first since the instrument's development 20 years ago to provide a detailed evaluation of the replicability of the factor structure of OBCS data in a sample of U.S. college women, the population for which the measure was originally developed and is used most frequently. Specifically, we used confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the structure of OBCS data and identify areas for measure refinement. Internal consistency reliability and convergent validity were also examined. A sample of 368 U.S. college women completed the OBCS along with measures of body esteem and thin-ideal internalization as convergent validity indicators. Findings revealed that OBCS Control Beliefs items were poor indicators of the factor. A two-factor structure composed of Body Surveillance and Body Shame was supported. Support for internal consistency reliability and convergent validity was also garnered. Additionally, abbreviated versions of the Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales produced good model-data fit without sacrificing reliability or validity. These results support the use of the OBCS Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales to assess critical aspects of body image in research and practice contexts; the abbreviated versions of these subscales can address demands for brevity in these contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex and Chinese culture appear to be at odds with one another. Sex talk, however, has been on constant supply in Hong Kong media in the past decade. Considering that Chinese culture prefers to conceal, rather than reveal, sexual matters, this study probes into the phenomenon which sees the proliferation of sex-related debates and controversies in news media in this predominantly Chinese society. Two cases about photobooks of female models were used to illuminate the dominant discourses regarding female bodies in Hong Kong media. Since 2009, photobooks featuring teenage models in sexy poses have become standard provisions in the annual Hong Kong Book Fair. In 2015, a 6-year old girl participated in the production of a photobook. It soon caught the attention of critics who questioned the sexual connotations of a few pictures. Despite the decision to recall all copies, the incident provoked debates on child pornography and a rare discussion about sexual agency. This study has identified various discourses in mainstream news media and social media. It was found that morality and money are two keywords that best summarize how Hong Kong responds to sex matters, while changing media technologies are opening up space for alternative views. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexualization is associated with negative mental and physical health consequences for girls. Media exposure, particularly television (TV), is a pervasive source of sexualizing messages yet little work has quantified sexualization in children's media, particularly in media popular with minority youth. The current research examines the prevalence of sexualization in children's TV programs popular among U.S. Latina and White girls aged 6 to 11 through a quantitative content analysis of 32 episodes from the ten most popular children's TV series. Results indicated that sexualization was present in every coded episode, with at least three instances present per episode, and a combined total of 770 instances across all episodes. Female characters were more commonly portrayed in a sexualized manner than were male characters and were sexualized in 72 % of instances. Characters of color were generally sexualized at the same rate as White characters. Although sexualized clothing was the most common form of sexualization in the children's programs, a broad range of sexualizing content was present. Instances of sexualization included sexualizing comments, body exposure, self-sexualizing physical behaviors and activities, sexualizing physical behaviors toward others, verbal and physical objectification, and body/appearance modification. These findings suggest that sexualization is present in children's media popular among both Latina and White girls and that identifying means to counter this influence should be a priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes how individuals use affect as a resource to negotiate judgments of appropriateness in situations where they or others feel sexualized. It draws from two years of participant observation at a sensual figure drawing session in an erotic arts club-where bodily exposure was heightened and social norms regarding sexualization were ambiguous-as well as in-depth interviews with the club's artists, models, and owners. It argues that somatic security and somatic insecurity, individuals' comfort or unease with how they perceive others to interact with their bodies through talk and bodily comportment, mediate sexualized interactions. Extending sociological studies of sexualization in interaction, it reveals that these affective states, which arise out of situational dynamics, form a foundation of comfort/unease toward others and assurance/shame with oneself. Individuals use these affective experiences to judge and justify future interactions as appropriate or inappropriate and develop relationships with others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing attention has been paid to examining how women present themselves on Social Networking Sites (SNSs). Recently, researchers have found that SNSs seem to provide a unique forum for the reproduction of traditional gender roles, including the sexualization of women. In the current study, we evaluated various correlates of self-sexualization in the Facebook profile pictures of young women. Ten Facebook profile photographs of each of 98 young adult women, ranging in age from 18 to 28 years old, were coded for self-sexualization. Participants also completed self-report surveys measuring appearance-related contingencies of self-worth, body surveillance, and internalization of sociocultural beauty norms. Appearance-related contingencies of self-worth and body surveillance were both independently positively associated with self-sexualization in Facebook profile photographs. Although internalization of sociocultural appearance attitudes did not have a direct effect on self-sexualization in Facebook profile pictures, it did have an indirect effect through body surveillance. Potential theoretical and practical implications and directions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using thematic analysis of interview data, the present study assessed teen girls' and young adult women's attitudes toward posting sexualized profile photos on Facebook. In addition, sexualization behaviors depicted in participants' profile photos were examined. Participants overwhelmingly disapproved (either in a reluctant or a clear manner) of posting a profile photo of oneself in underwear on social media. A somewhat different pattern emerged in attitudes about posting a swimsuit photo in which specific conditions were laid out determining whether swimsuit photos were acceptable or not. Sexualization cues in profile photos were generally low. Findings suggest that posting a sexualized photo on social media comes with relational costs for girls and women. Strategies for educating young people about new media use and sexualization are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leading up to the early 2000s, feminist researchers identified numerous representational practices through which the sports media ignored, trivialized and sexualized sportswomen. At that time, a distillation of the research into a set of six unwritten media 'rules' concluded that, at best, the traditional media approached women's sport ambivalently within an either/ or discourse of pretty or powerful that constructed femininity and athleticism as incompatible. In the past decade, the rise of Internet-based news and social media has dramatically changed the field of representation, including an explosion in public voice and information sharing on social networking sites. In this changed media landscape, I synthesize U.S. and global research into 15 historical and emerging rules of media representation, in order to extend researchers' understandings of the current status and range of representational practices. In addition, I employ the theoretical lenses of third-wave feminism and cultural studies to advance the ways in which feminist researchers can conceptualize and understand historical and emerging trends in how sportswomen are imagined in popular culture. In particular, I consider the implications of third wave feminism for understanding the emergence of a pretty and powerful discourse in the U.S. that challenges dominant interpretations of sports media coverage and points to the value for feminist sport media researchers of expanding their interpretive frameworks for making sense of media coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although everyday exposure to media content that sexually objectifies women is believed to lead women to sexualize themselves, research testing this connection has produced mixed results. Most studies have focused only on the self-objectification component of self-sexualization, and on limited assessments of media exposure. Our goal was to extend tests of this component of objectification theory both to understudied media genres and to men, and to do so using broader measures of self-sexualization. Surveying 1,107 U.S. undergraduate students (658 women and 449 men), we used structural equation modeling to test the contributions of exposure to popular reality programs, romantic-themed movies, and music videos to self-sexualization (a latent construct comprised of body surveillance, enjoyment of sexualization, and importance of sexual appeal). Frequent consumption of reality TV programs consistently predicted self-sexualization for women and men, and music video exposure predicted self-sexualization only for men. Findings confirm pathways proposed by objectification theory and indicate unique contributions of understudied media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was conducted with female undergraduates in the Midwestern region of U.S. to examine the potential positive and negative influences of the gendered depictions of women in superhero films. This study utilized social cognitive and objectification theory frameworks to experimentally examine the short-term effects of exposure to sexualized female characters in superhero films on 83 female viewers' gender role beliefs, body esteem, and self-objectification. Results show that exposure to the sexualized-victim images of women in superhero films decreased egalitarian gender role beliefs. Exposure to the sexualized-heroine images resulted in lower body esteem. Additionally, a positive effect emerged with a greater belief in the importance of body competence to the self-concept for women who were exposed to the superheroine characters. This study demonstrates short-term effects from viewing sexualized images of women in superhero films and provides a significant understanding of how sexualized female representations may impact gender related beliefs as well as perceptions of one's self-esteem and body objectification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents three studies designed to develop and validate a scale measuring the extent to which women believe that both they and other women generally gain power through their sexuality. The first two studies used exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to derive and confirm the factor structure of the Sex is Power Scale (SIPS). The SIPS is comprised of two subscales, one assessing one’s own feeling that sex can bring power and one assessing the belief that women in general use sex to gain power. In Study 3, convergent and discriminant validity were assessed. Correlations indicated that the SIPS subscales are distinct from conceptually related measures. Ways in which this scale could be useful to researchers are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores Greek Cypriot children's constructions of Russian and Romanian immigrant women in Cyprus as primarily sexualized "others." Using both qualitative and qualitative data, the article illustrates how children operate within structural and ideological constraints at the intersection of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality to construct a sense of "self" and "other" in relation to these women and to ultimately contribute to the reproduction of the nation's moral sense. The presence of these women in Cyprus gives rise to intense anxieties about national identity which is seen as being threatened by the promiscuous and often perceived immoral, sexual encounters between these Eastern European women and Greek Cypriot men. By drawing on the Greek Cypriot cultural ideologies of family, gender, and sexuality within the larger context of interethnic encounters resulting from immigration, children contribute in their own ways to the reproduction of a sense of national identity and moral superiority. The article aims to contribute to the small but emerging literature which considers children to be social actors who are able to reflect on and interpret their own social worlds and construct meaningful identities for themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terror Management Theory has led to suggestions that humans may distance themselves from menstruation in order to avoid reminders of their own corporeality and mortality, and the objectification of women has received empirical support as one means to do so. A content analysis of 240 menstrual product advertisements published in Seventeen and Cosmopolitan over 12 years was undertaken to look for evidence of objectification. Idealized images of women were common, lending support to the idea that these tactics can be used to provide distance from reminders of our own mortality, but overtly sexualized images were less common. The fact that nearly half of the advertisements did not include images of women may provide even stronger support for this idea. This indicated that a sanitized female body is not just being paired with reminders of menstruation, we are, literally, removing the female body entirely in many instances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concern is often expressed that mass media contribute to the early sexualization of young girls; however, few empirical studies have explored the topic. Using paper dolls, we examined self-sexualization among sixty 6-9 year-old girls from the Midwestern United States; specifically self-identification, preference, and attributions regarding sexualized dress. Based on simultaneous maternal reports, we also investigated potential risk factors (media consumption hours, maternal self-objectification) and potential protective factors (maternal television mediation, maternal religiosity) for young girls' sexualization. Findings support social cognitive theory/social learning theory and reveal nuanced moderated effects in addition to linear main effects. Girls overwhelmingly chose the sexualized doll over the non-sexualized doll for their ideal self and as popular; however, dance studio enrollment, maternal instructive TV mediation, and maternal religiosity reduced those odds. Surprisingly, the mere quantity of girls' media consumption (tv and movies) was unrelated to their self-sexualization for the most part; rather, maternal self-objectification and maternal personal religiosity moderated its effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We expand on Lamb and Peterson's (2011) discussion of the influence of social forces on the development of girls' sexual empowerment. A predominant message from a variety of media in the U.S. is that women are sexual objects controlled by men's sexual desires. Media messages are bolstered by the sexist treatment of girls and women in everyday society, and by gendered social roles derived from the patriarchal structure of society. We present empirical evidence that societal representations of sexuality in the United States are gendered and promote male control over female sexuality. We review research linking exposure to these sexist messages with the development of self-objectification and attitudes and behaviors supportive of gender stereotyped sexual roles. While many studies are conducted with women rather than girls, researchers are beginning to study these issues in older girls, and some longitudinal data are available. We make suggestions for further research within an ecological framework that would allow the examination of messages from multiple sources within a developmental framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Claims about 'empowerment' increasingly animate debates about the 'sexualization of culture'. This article responds to Lamb and Peterson's (2011) attempts to open up and complicate the notion of 'sexual empowerment' as it is used in relation to adolescent girls. Drawing on contemporary research from the UK, New Zealand and elsewhere, the article seeks to promote a dialogue between media and communications research and more psychologically oriented scholarship. The paper makes four arguments. First it points to the need to rethink conceptualizations of the media, and processes of media influence. Secondly it raises critical questions about the notion of 'media literacy' which has increasingly taken on the status of panacea in debates about young people and 'sexualization'. Thirdly it highlights the curious absence of considerations of power in debates about sexual empowerment, and argues for the need to think about sexualization in relation to class, 'race', sexuality and other axes of oppression. Finally, it raises critical questions about the utility of the notion of sexual empowerment, given its individualistic framing, the developmentalism implicit in its use, and the difficulties in identifying it in cultures in which 'empowerment' is used to sell everything from liquid detergents to breast augmentation surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our joint theoretical piece (Lamb and Peterson ), we attempted to find points of agreement and further elucidate points of disagreement in relation to the challenging issue of adolescent girls' sexual empowerment. In particular, we evaluated the divisive question of whether girls' subjective feelings of sexual empowerment qualify as some useful version of empowerment. We are grateful to the commentators for joining us in this productive and collaborative conversation. In this response, we summarize some of the themes raised by the commentators, and we look for points of agreement around which we, as feminists, can continue to build a conversation on this polarizing issue. We also attempt to better explore the possible relationship between subjective empowerment and political empowerment by resurrecting the idea that 'the personal is political.' [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

number of journalists and scholars have pointed to the sexual objectification of women and men in popular media to argue that Western culture has become 'sexualized' or even 'pornified.' Yet it is not clear whether men or women have become more frequently-or more intensely sexualized-over time. In a longitudinal content analysis of images of women and men on more than four decades of Rolling Stone magazine covers (1967-2009), we begin to answer such questions. Using a unique analytical framework that allows us to measure both the frequency and intensity of sexualization, we find that sexualized images of men and women have increased, though women continue to be more frequently sexualized than men. Yet our most striking finding is the change in how women-but not men-are sexualized. Women are increasingly likely to be 'hypersexualized,' but men are not. These findings not only document changes in the sexualization of men and women in popular culture over time, they also point to a narrowing of the culturally acceptable ways for 'doing' femininity as presented in popular media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using nationally representative data from the 1992 U.S. National Health and Social Life Survey, this study queried the prevalence and risk factors of lifetime workplace sexual harassment among both women and men. Among those aged 18–60 reporting ever having worked, 41% of women (CI, 37–44) reported any workplace harassment over their lifetime, with men’s harassment prevalence significantly lower, at 32% (CI, 29–35). In the youngest age groups (those in their 20s or younger), there was no statistically significant difference between women’s and men’s harassment prevalence. Multivariate analysis of risk factors suggested that, in contrast to much of the harassment literature, among both genders workplace harassment seemed to have at least as much to do with a system of “routine activities” mechanisms—a victim’s conscious or unconscious sexual signaling, more exposure to potential harassers, and a perpetrator’s lower cost of harassment—as with unobserved differences in power between victim and perpetrator. Strikingly, both women’s and men’s harassment was strongly linked to markers of sexualization, whether early developmental factors or behavioral patterns in adulthood—a mechanism insufficiently emphasized in the harassment literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]