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Due to the miniaturization of equipment for flow chemistry and microprocess engineering, low-cost sensors and analytical devices are becoming increasingly important for automated inline process control and monitoring. The combination of 3D printing technology and open-source lab automation facilitates the creation of a microfluidic toolbox containing tailored actuators and sensors for flow chemistry, enabling a flexible and adaptable design and efficient processing and control based on the measured data. This contribution presents a set of 3D-printed microfluidic sensor flow cells for inline measurement of temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), and pH value, while compensating for the temperature dependence of EC and pH. The tailored sensor flow cells were tested using model reactions in a single-phase capillary flow system. They have an accuracy comparable to reference sensors in batch measurements. The sensor data can be used to monitor the reaction progress (conversion), determine the kinetic data (activation energy, pre-exponential factors) of saponification reactions, and identify titration characteristics (equivalence and isoelectric points) of neutralization reactions. Hence, the 3D-printed microfluidic sensor flow cells offer an attractive alternative to commercial analytical flow devices for open-source and low-cost lab automation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results revealed the significant effect of NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4, and Na2SO4 and pH values of 3.5–11 on the interfacial tension (IFT) reduction using three types of neutral, acidic, and basic crude oils, especially for acidic crude oil (crude oil II) as the pH was changed from 3.5 to 11 (due to saponification process). The findings showed the highest impact of pH on the IFT of crude oil II with a reducing trend, especially for the pH 11 when no salts exist. The results revealed that the salts except MgCl2 and CaCl2 led to a similar IFT variation trend for the case of distilled water/crude oil II. For the MgCl2 and CaCl2 solutions, a shifting point for IFT values was inevitable. Besides, the dissolution of 1-dodecyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C12mim][Cl]) with a concentration of 100–1000 ppm eliminates the effect of pH on IFT which leads to a reducing trend for all the examined crude oils with minimum IFT of 0.08 mN/m. Finally, the [C12mim][Cl] adsorption (under pH values) for crude oils using only Na2SO4 was measured and the minimum adsorption of 0.41 mg surfactant/g Rock under the light of saponification process was obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of sulfate salts under low and high salinity conditions and pH of 3.5–11 on interfacial tension (IFT) reduction and IL adsorption using resinous (RSO) and asphaltenic (8 wt/wt%) synthetic oils are investigated. The measurements showed the increasing effect of pH on the IFT of RSO/DW from 23.5 to 27.3 mN/m (pH = 3.5 → 7) in the first place and a reducing effect (0.4 mN/m) if pH = 7 → 11. Using a high concentration of 50,000 ppm for MgSO4, and Na2SO4 revealed an extensive IFT reduction for a pH value of 11 with the value of 0.20 mN/m for Na2SO4. The measured IFT values showed the significant impact of IL (500 ppm) on the IFT (minimum value of 0.01 mN/m for RSO/50,000 Na2SO4 + 500 ppm 1-decyl-3-methyl imidazolium triflate ([C10mim][TfO])) for pH = 11. The IL adsorption measurements showed the role of in-situ surfactant production (saponification process) on the 1-decyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C10mim][Cl]) and [C10mim][TfO] adsorption reduction from 3.67 to 2.33 and 4.21 to 3.34 mg IL/g rock, respectively. The performed core flooding experiments using the optimum chemical formulation showed the possibility of tertiary oil recovery with maximum oil recovery of 28.8% based on original oil in place in the presence of 500 ppm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During transesterification reactions, catalyst content, free fatty acids (FFA), and water content affect the final ester content, which is also impacted by soap formation that is yet to be completely elucidated. This research aimed to examine the effects of reaction time (0–10 min), FFA content (0.2–1.1 wt%), and potassium methoxide amount (KOCH3 0.5–2.42 wt%) during the transesterification reaction of refined palm oil containing 0.49 wt% FFA. Soap formation occurred during the first few seconds of the reaction, and then, the soap content remained relatively constant. From a microscopic point view, soap should act as a mass-diffusion barrier reducing reactant mass fluxes to the reaction zone. High FFA content in palm oil causes high soap formation. A high-water content leads to soap formation in FAME and RPO. FFA contributes to soap formation due to neutralization and saponification reactions. It was found that the optimal catalyst content to meet biodiesel property standards (i.e., particularly that the ester content is greater than 96.5%) was 1.0 wt% of oil. Catalyst addition below 0.7 wt % resulted in diesel that did not meet the required ester content standard. Catalyst addition exceeding 1% did not improve the conversion further, but it increases the production costs. Regarding the effects of the type of catalyst on the 2nd step transesterification of FAME, the use of potassium hydroxide showed more soap formation than potassium methoxide. The results suggest that the drawbacks associated with high catalyst utilization should be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS), an important phenomenon in the field of polymer science and material design, plays an essential role in cells and living bodies. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is a popular semicrystalline polymer utilized in the synthesis of artificial biomaterials. The aqueous solutions of its derivatives with tuned degrees of saponification (DS) exhibit LLPS. However, the miscibility and LLPS behavior of PVA aqueous solution are still unclear. This study describes the miscibility diagram of the ternary mixture, where water and two types of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) with different DSs [98 (PVA98), 88 (PVA88), 82 (PVA82), and 74 mol% (PVA74)] were blended. UV–Vis measurement was conducted to evaluate the miscibility. Immiscibility was more pronounced at elevated temperatures, exhibiting LLPS. The ternary immiscibility diagram, displaying miscible–immiscible behaviors in the aqueous mixtures of PVA74:PVA98, PVA82:PVA98, and PVA88:PVA98 (blended at a constant volume ratio), indicated that increasing the concentration, temperature, and blend ratio of PVAs at a lower DS increased immiscibility, suggesting that the free energy of mixing increases with increasing these parameters. The miscible–immiscible behaviors of PVAs/water systems provide fundamental knowledge about LLPS and the design of PVA-based materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scarcity of fossil fuels, adverse climate effects due to fossil fuel consumption, and environmental concerns raised increased attention for renewable energy. Biodiesel has high potential as a renewable energy source and can substitute petroleum-derived fuel without any modification of the conventional diesel engine. In this contribution, biodiesel is obtained from Mesua ferrea L. (Nahor oil) by a three-step process consisting of saponification, acidification, and esterification as a renewable fuel. Nahor seed kernel gives maximum oil content of 58.6% (v/w) through the soxhlet extraction method by using n-hexane as solvent. An enhanced saponification reaction (~two-fold increase of initial reaction rate) was evident in the presence of CaO rather than NaOH and NaCl. A faster and more complete acidification reaction to free fatty acid (FFA) was evidenced for a 1 : 1.5 molar ratio of soap to acid (HCl) at 70°C temperature and ambient pressure. Biodiesel formation was found optimal for a 1 : 6 molar ratio of FFA to methanol at 60°C and atmospheric pressure, in presence of HCl as a catalyst. 1H NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy of produced biodiesel confirms the full up-gradation of triglyceride (Nahor oil) to biodiesel. Detailed characterization of the derived biodiesel shows most of the properties are compatible with petrodiesel standards to a certain extent despite high pour and cloud points. Moreover, biodiesel derived from Nahor seed oil shows better compatibility with petrodiesel than sunflower or Koroch seed oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spent coffee ground (SCG) oil is an ideal substrate for the biosynthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) by Cupriavidus necator. The immiscibility of lipids with water limits their bioavailability, but this can be resolved by saponifying the oil with potassium hydroxide to form water-soluble fatty acid potassium salts and glycerol. Total saponification was achieved with 0.5 mol/L of KOH at 50 °C for 90 min. The relationship between the initial carbon substrate concentration (C0) and the specific growth rate (µ) of C. necator DSM 545 was evaluated in shake flask cultivations; crude and saponified SCG oils were supplied at matching initial carbon concentrations (C0 = 2.9–23.0 g/L). The Han-Levenspiel model provided the closest fit to the experimental data and accurately described complete growth inhibition at 32.9 g/L (C0 = 19.1 g/L) saponified SCG oil. Peak µ-values of 0.139 h−1 and 0.145 h−1 were obtained with 11.99 g/L crude and 17.40 g/L saponified SCG oil, respectively. Further improvement to biomass production was achieved by mixing the crude and saponified substrates together in a carbon ratio of 75:25% (w/w), respectively. In bioreactors, C. necator initially grew faster on the mixed substrates (µ = 0.35 h−1) than on the crude SCG oil (µ = 0.23 h−1). After harvesting, cells grown on crude SCG oil obtained a total biomass concentration of 7.8 g/L and contained 77.8% (w/w) PHA, whereas cells grown on the mixed substrates produced 8.5 g/L of total biomass and accumulated 84.4% (w/w) of PHA. Key points: • The bioavailability of plant oil substrates can be improved via saponification. • Cell growth and inhibition were accurately described by the Han-Levenpsiel model. • Mixing crude and saponified oils enable variation of free fatty acid content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silica-based heterogeneous catalyst derived from rice husk ash (RHA) was used for the transformation of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) into biodiesel. The production of the biodiesel from PFAD was conducted via esterification and transesterification employing Huskcatacid and Huskcatbase, respectively. The biodiesel was analyzed from different parameters, i.e., amount of catalyst, oil to methanol ratio, temperature, and reaction times. The outcomes depicted Huskcatacid was efficient for PFAD esterification to produce 91.6% ester with 5 wt% catalysts and 5:1 (MeOH:PFAD), followed by the transesterification using 1 wt% Huskcatbase in 3:1 (MeOH:oil) to generate 99.73% biodiesel with a high percentage of methyl oleate (57.86%) and methyl palmitate (34.43%). Huskcatacid and Huskcatbase depicted a high surface area (7.362 m2/g and 14.493 m2/g) and high porosity (2.726 × 10−3 cm3/g and 4.985 × 10−3 cm3/g), respectively, that contributed to the efficient esterification and the easy separation of glycerol. The PFAD-derived biodiesel was tested on the Megatech®-Mark III engine and confirmed the proportional torque (ɽ) increment with the loading of B100 biodiesel. Rice husk showed promising outcomes as solid-support heterogeneous catalysts and the production of value-added products to reduce the agricultural waste management issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mutual solubilities of multiple components in the transesterification reaction are among the key factors affecting biodiesel production. In the experiments, refined palm oil (RPO) and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) were the main reactants, and methanol was added. Sodium methoxide and sulfuric acid were used as alkaline and acid catalysts, respectively. The co-solvent, tetrahydrofuran (THF), was used to improve solubility. Visual observations with an LCD digital microscope were done at room temperature to eliminate methanol loss. A concave slide glass was employed as a micro-reactor for observing mass transport in the reaction zone. The imaging results showed that the multi-component reactions in biodiesel production were of heterogeneous liquid-liquid type. The by-products glycerol and soap play significant roles as reaction barrier and suspension component in the system, while the added THF did not induce complete solubility. The kinetics of heterogeneous liquid-liquid transesterification or esterification reactions should be revised to properly account for both mass transfer and chemical reactions. Multistage combinations of separation of the alcohol phase and of new alcohol intake should be employed to reduce mass transfer resistances by glycerol and soap, to speed up overall kinetics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of fatty acids (FA) in food and biological samples such as blood is indispensable in modern life sciences. We developed a rapid, sensitive and comprehensive method for the quantification of 41 saturated and unsaturated fatty acids by means of LC-MS. Optimized chromatographic separation of isobaric analytes was carried out on a C8 reversed phase analytical column (100 × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm core–shell particle) with a total run time of 15 min with back pressure lower than 300 bar. On an old triple quadrupole instrument (3200, AB Sciex), pseudo selected reaction monitoring mode was used for quantification of the poorly fragmenting FA, yielding limits of detection of 5–100 nM. Sample preparation was carried out by removal of phospholipids and triglycerides by solid-phase extraction (non-esterified fatty acids in oils) or saponification in iso-propanol (fatty acyls). This is not only a rapid strategy for quantification of fatty acyls, but allows the direct combination with the LC-MS-based analysis of fatty acid oxidation products (eicosanoids and other oxylipins) from the same sample. The concentrations of fatty acyls determined by means of LC-MS were consistent with those from GC-FID analysis demonstrating the accuracy of the developed method. Moreover, the method shows high precisions with a low intra-day (≤ 10% for almost all fatty acids in plasma and ≤ 15% in oils) and inter-day as well as inter-operator variability (< 20%). The method was successfully applied on human plasma and edible oils. The possibility to quantify non-esterified fatty acids in samples containing an excess of triacylglycerols and phospholipids is a major strength of the described approach allowing to gain new insights in the composition of biological samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new process for co-extraction and separation of fatty acids and carotenoids from Rhodosporidium toruloides NCYC 921 biomass in order to achieve full exploitation of the yeast lipidic fraction is described. A saponification of the wet yeast biomass was performed using a potassium hydroxide solution (1.1 M) in ethanol 96%, at 65 °C for 180 min. In the carotenoid extraction step, a biphasic system with an organic:aqueous phases ratio of 0.49 mL/mL and a water content of 18.9% (w/w) was used. In the presence of an acid catalyst, the fatty acid fraction was esterified into fatty acids ethyl esters. The yeast biomass downstream processing allowed reaching a fatty acid and total carotenoids recovery yields of 91.0% and 85.2%, respectively. The process reported here takes advantage of various components of the yeast biomass, therefore maximizing the value derived from the biomass feedstock, with a minimal environmental impact within the frame of circular bioeconomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the possibility of culturing Dunaliella salina in stickwater (SW) as the main effluent of fishmeal plants was evaluated. D. salina was grown in different media obtained by replacing standard Guillard medium (F/2) with SW at 0% (control), 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% ratios. The cell density, pigment contents, proximate composition, saponification value, and fatty acids (FAs) profiles were measured for 14 days. SW was collected from a kilka fishmeal factory in northern Iran, and the characteristics indicated high concentrations of nitrate (242.00 mg L−1) and phosphate (11.13 mg L−1). A significant increase in the cell density was observed in 14 days when 75% SW was used. Moreover, SW significantly affected the pigment contents. The highest contents of chlorophylls, total carotenoids, and β-carotene (3.64 μg mL−1) were calculated in 75% SW. According to the algal proximate composition, the highest and lowest contents of lipid were accumulated in 75% and 100% SW, respectively (p < 0.05). The highest level of saturated FAs was observed in 75% SW compared with the others (p < 0.05). In conclusion, replacing F/2 with SW indicated the capability of D. salina to grow in a treated medium with 75% SW substitution as a bioremediator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellulose-acetate nanofibers (CA-NF) and regenerated cellulose nanofibers (RC-NF) were separately compounded as reinforcement materials for enhancement of the mechanical property of polylactide (PLA). PLA has a great potential as an alternative to widely-used plastics such as polystyrene and poly(ethylene terephthalate), which are made from petroleum. PLA is well known for its biodegradability and renewability, but the mechanical property of PLA is not sufficient for industrial applications. In this study, CA-NF were successfully fabricated by electrospinning using 20 wt% cellulose-acetate solution with acetone/N,N-dimethylacetamide (6/4, wt/wt) mixture solvent, and RC-NF were synthesized by subsequent saponification, as reinforcement materials for PLA composites. The Young's modulus of CA-NF/PLA composites increased linearly from 1670 to 1840 MPa with the increase in the nanofiber concentration to 15 wt%. In contrast, the Young's modulus of RC-NF/PLA composites rapidly increased to ~ 1840 MPa at the relatively low nanofiber concentration of 5.0 wt%. Above 5.0 wt%, the Young's modulus became stable and almost constant. RC-NF exhibited better reinforcing efficiency due to the excellent mechanical property of RC-NF, although the interfacial compatibility of RC-NF for PLA matrix was relatively poor as compared with that of CA-NF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, sesame oil and protein hydrolysates were extracted via the enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction (EAAE) process using Neutrase (a commercial protease), Pectinex (a commercial carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzyme) and a 1:1 mix of Neutrase and Pectinex. All the extractions were performed at 50 °C and the optimum pH of the enzymes for 6 h, and the water to sesame ratio was raged between 1:1 and 6:1. The highest oil recoveries were obtained at 2:1 water to sesame ratio for each treatment and the Neutrase-Pectinex treatment gave the max recovery (89.7%, p < 0.05). The oil extracted using Neutrase-Pectinex treatment, contained the highest amount of unsaponifiables, total phenolic compounds, lignans and showed the highest oxidative stability, color indices and sensory attributes, even higher than the solvent-extracted oil (p < 0.05). However, oils obtained using different treatments were not significantly different in terms of free fatty acids content, iodine value, peroxide value, saponification value and anisidine value (p > 0.05). Protein hydrolysates obtained using Neutrase-Pectinex treatment (NPPH) had lower protein and higher carbohydrate content than that obtained using Neutrase treatment (NPH). The lowest solubility, emulsifying activity and stability indices, foam capacity and foam stability of NPPH and NPH was found to be at pH 4.0. The solubility of NPPH was higher than the NPH, but the emulsification properties of the NPH was better than NPPH at pH 2–10 (p < 0.05). NPPH and NPH were not significantly different in terms of foaming properties (p > 0.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sample preparation techniques for the analysis of vitamin D3 in food matrices typically utilise a saponification step, either at room temperature or at elevated temperatures. A calciferol (vitamin D2 or isotope labelled vitamin D3) is generally chosen as the internal standard to compensate for changes of previtamin D3–vitamin D3 isomerisation during analysis, as well as to correct for analyte loss through complex sample preparation steps. Manufacturing practices and processing parameters contribute to previtamin D formation in food products. A significant proportion (5.6–8.3%) of the total vitamin D3 in premixes was found as previtamin D3, indicating that it is likely, depending upon storage temperature and the time since manufacture, that a vitamin D3-fortified food product will contain a similar proportion of previtamin D3 prior to analysis. Conversely, freshly prepared internal standard solutions have low previtamin D levels (< 1%). In lieu of direct measurement, this discrepancy in previtamin D content between the internal standard and analyte forms of vitamin D will lead to analytical bias. To mitigate this as a source of potential error, it is recommended that sample pretreatment steps are appropriately set and controlled. Based on this work, saponification times greater than 300, 120, or 60 min for temperatures of 60, 70, or 80 °C respectively should be employed and that saponification at room temperature be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper takes a look on the effects of mass transport limitation occurring in hydrolysis of rape seed oil by means of an interfacial activated lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus. In order to carry out investigations for process optimization, the slug flow reactor was chosen in which a large interfacial area can be generated and the mass transport can be investigated individually for each phase. The choice of the capillary material determines the dispersed and the continuous phase. As shown by computational fluid dynamics simulation, the continuous phase is well mixed due to wall effects. The mixing patterns in the dispersed phase differ due to viscous forces between the phases. It was found that, at the same fluid velocities, the conversion in the glass capillary is higher than in the PTFE capillary. The surface-specific hydrolysis rate is used for comparison purposes, since the properties of the capillary are different. Increasing the velocity, the hydrolysis rate can be considerably increased in comparison to stagnant conditions. Already at a fluid velocity of 1 mm s−1, the hydrolysis rates increased to 2.3-fold in the glass capillary and moreover by a factor of 4 in the PTFE capillary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The feasibility of using vegetal feedstock pyrolysis products to produce motor-fuel components is examined. Results from pyrolysis of fatty-acid salts obtained by saponification of sunflower, rape, and linseed oils by various alkalis are presented. It is shown that the maximum pyrolysate yield is achieved at 500°C and is up to 52-55 wt%. The pyrolysate cannot be used directly as a fuel additive without further hydrofining because of the large amount of oxygenated compounds in it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lutein is a commercial carotenoid with potential health benefits. Microalgae are alternative sources for the lutein production in comparison to conventional approaches using marigold flowers. In this study, a process analysis of a single-step simultaneous extraction, saponification, and primary purification process for free lutein production from wet microalgae biomass was carried out. The feasibility of binary solvent mixtures for wet biomass extraction was successfully demonstrated, and the extraction kinetics of lutein from chloroplast in microalgae were first evaluated. The effects of types of organic solvent, solvent polarity, cell disruption method, and alkali and solvent usage on lutein yields were examined. A mathematical model based on Fick's second law of diffusion was applied to model the experimental data. The mass transfer coefficients were used to estimate the extraction rates. The extraction rate was found more significantly related with alkali ratio to solvent than to biomass. The best conditions for extraction efficiency were found to be pre-treatment with ultrasonication at 0.5 s working cycle per second, react 0.5 h in 0.27 L/g solvent to biomass ratio, and 1:3 ether/ethanol ( v/ v) with 1.25 g KOH/L. The entire process can be controlled within 1 h and yield over 8 mg/g lutein, which is more economical for scale-up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A method involving alkali and/or acid hydrolysis of phytosterols followed by trimethylsilyl ether derivatization coupled with GC-FID analysis was validated and applied in the analysis of major phytosterols (campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and Δ-avenasterol) in nuts ( n = 7), seeds ( n = 9), legumes ( n = 2), and grain ( n = 1). The acid-labile Δ-avenasterol was extracted with alkaline hydrolysis only before derivatization. Quantification of all phytosterols was done using the computed relative response factor of 5α-cholestane (internal standard). Analyses of internal and external phytosterol standards showed good linearity for all phytosterols ( R of 0.999); LOD and LOQ of phytosterols were determined to be 0.01-0.12 and 0.04-0.40 mg/100 g, respectively. Repeatability and reproducibility precision analyses showed acceptable coefficient of variation of less than 3 and 4%, respectively, and satisfactory Horwitz ratio values of <1.0. Excellent accuracy was proved by the high recovery values of 91.4-106.0% for campesterol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol. Δ-Avenasterol, the most oxidation-susceptible sterol, showed a recovery of about 60%. The total phytosterol (sum of major phytosterols quantified) contents in the 19 samples varied from 38.8 mg/100 g (white quinoa seed) to 246.2 mg/100 g (sunflower seed). β-Sitosterol was the predominant phytosterol (54-86.0% of total) among all samples except fennel seed in which stigmasterol was predominant. Analytical quality control chart maintained during the study period showed that assays were performed under control. Method validation indicated that the analytical method can be applied for accurate determination of campesterol, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol in selected food samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The feasibility of using Raman spectroscopy to determine chemical reaction rates and activation energies has been demonstrated for the saponification of ethyl acetate. The temperature dependence of the reaction rate was found in the range from 15 to 45°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microalgae have the potential to synthesize and accumulate lipids which contain high value fatty acids intended for nutrition and biodiesel applications. Nevertheless, lipid extraction methods for microalgae cells are not well established and there is not a standard analytical methodology to extract fatty acids from lipid-producing microalgae. In this paper, current lipid extraction procedures employing organic solvents (chloroform/methanol, 2:1 and 1:2, v/ v), sodium hypochlorite solution (NaClO), acid-catalysed hot-water extraction and the saponification process [2.5 M KOH/methanol (1:4, v/ v)] have been evaluated with two species of microalgae with different types of cell walls. One is a marine diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and the other a freshwater green microalga, Haematococcus pluvialis. Lipids from all types of extracts were estimated gravimetrically and their fatty acids were quantified by a HPLC equipped with Q-TOF mass spectrometer. Results indicated significant differences both in lipids yield and fatty acids composition. The chloroform and methanol mixture was the most effective extraction solvent for the unsaturated fatty acids such as DPA (C22:05), DHA, (C22:06), EPA (C20:05) and ARA (C20:04). While acid treatments improved the saturated fatty acids (SFAs) yield, especially the short chain SFA, lauric acid (C12:0), whose amount was 64% higher in P. tricornutum and 156% higher in H. pluvialis compared to organic solvent extractions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carotenoid contents of peel and pulp of local citrus fruits from Aceh were investigated using HPLC equipped with DAD detector and LC-MS. Most of the citrus samples investigated mainly contained lutein and zeaxanthin. Jeruk takengon ( Citrus nobilis) had a more complex carotenoid profile and the highest carotenoid contents compared to other citrus fruits studied here, and peel contained higher carotenoid contents than pulp. ( Z)-Violaxanthin and ( all- E)-violaxanthin were the main carotenoids of the peel, while ( all- E) β-cryptoxanthin and ( Z)-violaxanthin were the main carotenoids of the pulp of jeruk takengon. Determination of the lipophilic antioxidant capacity (L-TEAC) of the carotenoid extracts of jeruk takengon showed promising antioxidant potential. The peel extract showed stronger antioxidant capacity than the pulp extract, and saponification further improved the antioxidant capacity. Investigating the inhibition of α-amylase activity resulted in a moderate α-amylase inhibition by jeruk takengon due to the carotenoid contents and the contribution of some flavonoids. Pulp extracts exhibited better inhibition activity than peel extracts, and saponification led to a reduction of the α-amylase inhibition activity. Antibacterial activity tests showed that jeruk takengon could inhibit the growth of K. pneumonia and S. aureus, and saponification enhanced the antibacterial activities. In general, the peel extracts showed biological potential due to the relatively strong in vitro antioxidant, antibacterial and α-amylase inhibitory activity. In addition, these by-products of food processing may serve as potential carotenoid sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conventional saponification method could result in lower recoveries and artificial changes of long-chain fatty acids. The main reason is the error judgment of the intermediate layer suspended between the aqueous and organic layer during the liquid-liquid extraction process. This study shows that the intermediate layer consists of lots of medium- to long-chain carboxylic salts for their special physical and chemical properties. An improved saponification extraction method is also developed and the results show that the carboxylic salts distributed in the intermediate layer could be obtained completely, which greatly enhances the authenticity and accuracy of fatty acid analysis. Additionally, the possible reasons of formation of the intermediate layer are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seed of Zanthoxylum bungeanum ( Z. bungeanum) is a by-product of pepper production and rich in unsaturated fatty acid, cellulose, and protein. The seed oil obtained from traditional producing process by squeezing or extracting would be bad quality and could not be used as edible oil. In this paper, a new preparation method of Z. bungeanum seed kernel oil (ZSKO) was developed by comparing the advantages and disadvantages of alkali saponification-cold squeezing, alkali saponification-solvent extraction, and alkali saponification-supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide (SFE-CO). The results showed that the alkali saponification-cold squeezing could be the optimal preparation method of ZSKO, which contained the following steps: Z. bungeanum seed was pretreated by alkali saponification under the conditions of adding 10 %NaOH ( w/ w), solution temperature was 80 °C, and saponification reaction time was 45 min, and pretreated seed was separated by filtering, water washing, and overnight drying at 50 °C, then repeated squeezing was taken until no oil generated at 60 °C with 15 % moisture content, and ZSKO was attained finally using centrifuge. The produced ZSKO contained more than 90 % unsaturated fatty acids and no trans-fatty acids and be testified as a good edible oil with low-value level of acid and peroxide. It was demonstrated that the alkali saponification-cold squeezing process could be scaled up and applied to industrialized production of ZSKO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present investigation, silica-based boron trisulfonic acid was successfully synthesized via chlorosulfonation of boric acid at ambient conditions. Also, work was investigated to synthesize biodiesel fuel via transesterification of soybean oil over silica boron trisulfonic acid, as an efficient, recoverable, and recyclable solid-acid catalyst. The highest biodiesel yield observed was 94.53 %. Synthesized catalyst was fittingly characterized by FT-IR, NH-TPD, BET, XRD, and SEM analysis, whereas synthesized biodiesel fuel was duly characterized by FT-IR, H NMR, and C NMR spectroscopic techniques. Graphical Abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A procedure was suggested for preparing functionally substituted 1,2-diols by O-alkylation of hydroxyalkyl-1,3-dioxacyclanes with alkyl halides, followed by acid hydrolysis. The conditions for selective cleavage of the ethers obtained were found. (2,2-Dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)methyl benzoate under the conditions of acid deacetalization undergoes saponification of the ester group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fat, oil and, grease (FOG) deposits are one primary cause of sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs). While numerous studies have examined the formation of FOG deposits in sewer pipes, little is known about their biodegradation under sewer environments. In this study, FOG deposit biodegradation potential was determined by studying the biodegradation of calcium palmitate in laboratory under aerobic, nitrate-reducing, sulfate-reducing, and methanogenic conditions. Over 110 days of observation, calcium palmitate was biodegraded to CO under aerobic and nitrate-reducing conditions. An approximate 13 times higher CO production rate was observed under aerobic condition than under nitrate-reducing condition. Under sulfate-reducing condition, calcium palmitate was recalcitrant to biodegradation as evidenced by small reduction in sulfate. No evidence was found to support calcium palmitate degradation under methanogenic condition in the simulated sewer environment. Dominant microbial populations in the aerobic and nitrate-reducing microcosms were identified by Illumina seqeuncing, which may contain the capability to degrade calcium palmitate under both aerobic and nitrate-reducing conditions. Further study on these populations and their functional genes could shed more light on this microbial process and eventually help develop engineering solutions for SSOs control in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objectives of this study were (i) the optimization and the validation of a high performance liquid chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of seven cholesterol oxidation products (COPs), (ii) the development of a reliable analytical protocol for their selective isolation from food samples, and (iii) the application to several foodstuffs. Baseline separation was achieved using a cyano-bonded high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column and a mobile phase of n-hexane/2-propanol/acetone (97:1.5:1.5, v/v). The criteria studied for the choice of the optimum extraction procedure were the selectivity towards COPs and its efficiency in removing matrix interferences. Special attention was given to the stability of 7-keto under saponification conditions. The ideal procedure involved extraction of lipids from the food matrix with chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v), alkaline hydrolysis with 1 M potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution in 60 % aqueous ethanol and subsequent enrichment of COPs with solid phase extraction using an NH column. COPs presented recoveries from 76 to 103 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tocotrienols, members of the vitamin E family, are natural compounds found in a number of vegetable oils, wheat germ, barley and certain types of nuts and grains. Vegetable oils provide the best sources of these vitamin E forms, particularly palm oil and rice bran oil contain higher amounts of tocotrienols. Other sources of tocotrienols include grape fruit seed oil, oats, hazelnuts, maize, olive oil, buckthorn berry, rye, flax seed oil, poppy seed oil and sunflower oil. Tocotrienols are of four types, viz. alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) and delta (δ). Unlike tocopherols, tocotrienols are unsaturated and possess an isoprenoid side chain. A number of researchers have developed methods for the extraction, analysis, identification and quantification of different types of vitamin E compounds. This article constitutes an in-depth review of the chemistry and extraction of the unsaturated vitamin E derivatives, tocotrienols, from various sources using different methods. This review article lists the different techniques that are used in the characterization and purification of tocotrienols such as soxhlet and solid-liquid extractions, saponification method, chromatography (thin layer, column chromatography, gas chromatography, supercritical fluid, high performance), capillary electrochromatography and mass spectrometry. Some of the methods described were able to identify one form or type while others could analyse all the analogues of tocotrienol molecules. Hence, this article will be helpful in understanding the various methods used in the characterization of this lesser known vitamin E variant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A special method is described for the preparation of (3R, 3′R)-astaxanthin monoester (AM) and (3R, 3′R)-astaxanthin from Antarctic krill ( Euphausia superba Dana). Purified AM was obtained on a large scale from crude extract extracted from Antarctic krill in 38.14 % yield by silica gel column chromatography. After the AM was saponified with methanolic KOH (0.10 mol L) and separated by high-performance thin-layer chromatography, pure astaxanthin was obtained. There was only one optical (3R, 3′R)-isomer of the esterification of astaxanthin with (-)-camphanic acid chloride detected by high-performance liquid chromatography compared with astaxanthin standard. It was further proved that the AM consists of only one optical (3R, 3′R)-isomer. Twelve types of fatty acids in the AM from Antarctic krill were found by gas chromatography-mass spectrometer. Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids are the major fatty acids. It is the first time to prepare (3R, 3′R)-AM and (3R, 3′R)-astaxanthin from Antarctic krill. The purified (3R, 3′R)-AM and (3R, 3′R)-astaxanthin can be used as a standard for further related study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new process was tested in order to produce and purify biodiesel from microalgae lipids and to recover unsaponifiable (added-value) lipids. This process is a two-step biodiesel production including a saponification reaction step followed by an esterification reaction step. The process includes a recovery of the unsaponified lipids between both reaction steps. Among the conditions tested, the following conditions were found to be the best: temperature for both steps (90 °C), saponification time (30 min), esterification time (30 min), sulfuric acid/potassium hydroxide (1.21, w/ w), and methanol-lipid ratio (13.3 mL/g). Under these conditions, the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield and the biodiesel purity were, respectively, 32 % (g FAME/g lipid) and 77 % (g FAME/g biodiesel). This study also showed that the two-step biodiesel process allows a FAME mass composition rich in palmitate (27.9-29.4 wt%), palmitoleate (24.9-26.0 wt%), elaidate (14.8-15.2 wt%), and myristate (12.1-13.0 wt%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tomato seeds represent a large waste by-product from the processing of tomatoes into products such as tomato juice, sauce and paste. One potential use for these seeds is as a source of vegetable oil. In this study, the seed oil of tomato obtained from Jordan Valley was extracted and analyzed to determine its physicochemical properties. The characteristics (iodine value, acid value, refractive index and saponification value) of the oils were determined. Tomato oil has an iodine value of 123, a refractive index of 1.467, a saponification value of 192, and an acid value of 2.3. Our alkyd resins results showed that the extracted tomato seed oil can be qualified to be used in the synthesize of alkyd resin. Three grades of tomato-based alkyd resins modified by varying the percentage of tomato seed oil contents were prepared according to the alcoholysis-polyesterification process. Fourier transform infrared, proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry were employed to identify the structure of the resulting resins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The corrosion resistance performance of poly ( otoluidine) (POT)-dispersed castor oil-polyurethane, (COPU) nanocomposite coatings, POT/COPU, with three different compositions (i.e. 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 wt%) in alkaline medium is studied. The coatings are applied on mild steel specimens by brushing. Corrosion resistance behaviour of these coatings is investigated using potentiodynamic polarization measurements, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and by weight loss. The morphological behaviour of corroded and uncorroded coated specimens is investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It is interesting to report that the presence of conducting polymer nanoparticles in POT/COPU coatings suppresses the saponification of COPU in an alkaline environment. These investigations show that the dispersion of POT in COPU remarkably improves the corrosion resistance performance of COPU in alkaline media. POT/COPU (1.0 wt%) coatings have potential as anticorrosive-coating materials in alkaline media at higher pH. These coatings have a higher resistance to alkaline medium in comparison to other compositions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cost-effective biosorbent was prepared by a green chemical modification process from muskmelon peel by saponification with alkaline solution of Ca(OH). Its adsorption behavior for lead ions was investigated and found to exhibit excellent adsorption properties. Results showed that the optimal equilibrium pH range for 100 % adsorption is from 4 up to 6.4. Adsorption equilibrium was attained within 10 min. The adsorption process can be described well by Langmuir model and pseudo-second-order kinetics equation, respectively. The maximum adsorption capacity for lead ions was found to be 0.81 mol/kg. Pectic acid contained in the muskmelon peel is the main factor responsible for the uptake of lead ions onto the gel, and the chemical modification process presented in this study can be assumed effective to prepare other similar biomaterials. The large adsorption capacity and the fast adsorption rate indicated that chemically saponified muskmelon peel gel in present study has great potential to be used as a cost-effective adsorbent for the removal of lead ions from the water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal fractionation via the method of successive self-nucleation and annealing was used for the first time to study the crystallinity of vinyl acetate-vinyl alcohol copolymers with different random distributions of chain units. The lamella-thickness distribution was calculated through the Gibbs-Thomson equation. It was shown that, for all samples, the minimum lamella thickness is the same and corresponds to a block of no less than 15 vinyl alcohol units. On the basis of these data and with the use of the computer simulation of the polymer-analogous reaction via the Monte Carlo method, the block-length distribution in the crystalline phase was found. It was shown through a comparison of the lamella-thickness and block-length distributions that the maximum lamella thickness increases with the block length and vinyl alcohol content in the copolymer. In crystallites, blocks with lengths exceeding the maximum lamella thickness comprise a significant fraction. Thus, it is probable that these blocks form folds. The dependences of melting temperatures of crystalline lamellas on their thicknesses, as well as the dependences of the melting temperatures of copolymers not subjected to thermal fractionation on the chain-structure parameters, are adequately described by the Flory crystallization theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactions of high nitrogen-containing cellulose nitrate with a series of aliphatic alcohols are studied. In the course of physicochemical studies most probable pathways of chemical reaction were established. They include substitution of nitrate groups by alkoxy group, opening of glucopyranose ring with the addition of the fragment of alcohol by the free bonds formed and formation of the carbonyl group, and also saponification of nitrate groups while studying the process in alkaline medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the production of free fatty acids (FFAs) from waste oil by means of low-frequency high-intensity ultrasound application under atmospheric pressure. To evaluate the potential of this technology, the reaction between waste palm oil and ethanol was carried out. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate the influence of alcohol-to-oil weight ratio, potassium hydroxide-to-oil weight ratio, and temperature on the yield of waste oil into FFA. Analysis of the operating conditions by RSM showed that the most important operating conditions affecting the reaction were ethanol-to-oil weight ratio and potassium hydroxide-to-oil weight ratio. The highest yield observed was of 97.3 % after 45 min of reaction. The best operating condition was obtained by applying an ethanol-to-oil weight ratio of 2.4, a potassium hydroxide-to-oil weight ratio of 0.3, and temperature of 60 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emulsifiers were prepared by base saponification of sunflower-seed oil production waste, soapstock. The rate of styrene polymerization in the presence of these surfactants and various amounts of an initiator (potassium persulfate) was estimated. The polystyrene yield and molecular weight were found. For six latexes synthesized, the colloid-chemical characteristics (dry residue, surface tension, electrokinetic potential, rapid coagulation threshold, latex globule size) were determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe production of methyl and ethyl esters derived from baru oil ( Dipteryx alata Vog.). Water and alcohols are removed from the biodiesel obtained by simple distillation. We study the acidity, density, iodine number, viscosity, water content, peroxide number, external appearance, and saponification number of the oil, its methyl and ethyl esters (biodiesels) and their blends (B5, B10, B15, B20, and B30) with commercial diesel fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residues from medicine containers in the collections of the British Museum have been investigated as part of a wider programme of scientific work on Roman surgical instruments. The cylindrical bronze containers are often described as instrument cases, but some contain materia medica, ranging from extensive extant remains of ancient preparations to possible minor deposits on the interior surfaces of the containers. Samples from seven residues have been analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify lipid, resin and carbohydrate components and by X-ray fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy to characterise inorganic materials. The results have provided evidence for ointments and powders or pills consistent with a medical purpose. The ingredients identified include beeswax, fat, conifer resin and gum-derived sugars, plus elemental carbon and lead and zinc salts. Particularly significant were the varied compositions of residues from four sections of a multi-compartment container. In one of these compartments, the beeswax seems to have been prepared as the 'Punic wax' described by Pliny. Experimental preparation of Punic wax following Pliny's method was undertaken in the laboratory and the product analysed to compare with the ointment residues. This paper discusses the GC-MS results of both the experimental material and the archaeological residues and their significance for the interpretation of the past intended applications of the medicines and the use of the containers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cutins of plant shoots and suberins, mostly present in roots could contribute to significant portions of stable soil organic matter. Their biomarker potential, residing in their unique compositions in different plant types, has been used previously to infer sources of organic matter in sediments. These aliphatic plant biopolyesters contain specific biomarkers, which may be used for tracing their fate in soils and sediments, when combined with stable C isotope labelling. In order to evaluate the potential use of cutin and suberin biomarkers as indicators of shoot and root contributions from C and C plant origins, the objectives of this study were to 1) identify their constitutive monomers, which are specific for shoots and roots of maize (C) and wheat (C); 2) evaluate the C differences between maize and wheat biomarkers. Mid-chain hydroxy carboxylic acids were mainly found in the aboveground biomass, while α,ω-alkanedioic acids were only present in the roots. The differences in the isotopic composition of the specific monomers between wheat and maize plants (17-18‰ for shoot markers, 19‰ for root markers) were larger than those observed for bulk plant tissues and close to those observed for lignin-derived phenols in other studies. These differences should make it possible to differentiate and quantify the different types and sources of organic matter in sediments and soils. In particular, the molecular and isotopic signatures of cutins and suberins can be used to evaluate the specific dynamics of root vs shoot tissues in soils using C/C chronosequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saponification of various fatty acid methyl esters with an aqueous solution of sodium or potassium hydroxide (NaOH(aq) or KOH(aq)) using a long narrow tubular reactor (TR) was studied at 333 K to elucidate effects of their carbon number on the apparent diffusion constant ( k). Saponification by a conventional method, batch-type system (BR), was also studied for comparison with that in the TR. All of the saponification rates obeyed the Nernst diffusion rate equation, and the values of k were determined from their Nernst plots. The values of k in the TR system were more than 500-times larger than those in the BR system. The diffusion constant ( D) calculated from k increased with a decrease in carbon number of fatty acid methyl esters. In addition, the value of D was proportional to the reciprocal of viscosity of methyl ester. Moreover, saponification was promoted more by KOH than by NaOH, and the value of D with KOH(aq) was 2.0-times larger than that with NaOH(aq). The two-fold larger value was nearly equal to the radius ratio of potassium ion to hydrated sodium ion. Therefore, it is concluded that viscosity and ion radius contributed predominantly to the diffusion and that the diffusion of hydrated sodium ion to potassium ion was a rate-controlling step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A gas chromatographic technique is reported for the determination of a secondary antioxidant, Irgafos 168, in polymeric samples. Irgafos 168 [tris(2,4-di- tert-butyl phenyl)phosphite] is extracted by dissolution/precipitation, saponified to 2,4-di- tert-butyl phenol by refluxing in the presence of methanolic potassium hydroxide, and determined by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection. The method’s repeatability is good, and the relative standard deviation is 7.5% (between runs) and 15.5% (between days). This method was applied to the determination of Irgafos 168 in commercial polymers, and the obtained results were in relatively good agreement with those obtained by the previously reported spectrophotometric method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sterols in olive oils have been analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry with atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization in positive-ion mode. A simple procedure based on saponification and extraction of the compounds from olive oils was studied. Validation of the method included calibration and determination of recovery and repeatability was carried out. Good linearity was obtained up to 100 mg kg−1 for all the sterols studied except β-sitosterol, for which linearity was obtained up to 2,000 mg kg−1. Recovery ranged from 88 to 110%, detection limits from 0.9 to 3.1 mg kg−1, and precision was good. The method has been successfully used for analysis of sterols in different types of oil. The predominant sterol was β-sitosterol; other minor components, for example sitostanol and cholesterol, were also detected. Total sterol content depended on the type of oil, and ranged from 687 to 2,479 mg kg−1. Stigmasterol and the amount of erythrodiol plus uvaol can be used to distinguish between olive oil and seed oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the composition and the process of production of the new grease containing exclusively environmentally safe biodegradable components such as rape oil, vegetable oil tar, inedible fat as well as natural and artificial silicates. The grease is operable within 0–160°C and intended for friction units of light and food industry equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A gas chromatographic method has been established for determination of Irganox 1010 and 1076 after saponification. The analytes were saponified with methanolic potassium hydroxide, acidified with hydrochloric acid, and the solvent was removed by rotary evaporation. The dry residue was dissolved in xylene and analyzed by GC with flame-ionization detector (FID). Compounds were separated on a polar (Carbowax 20 M) capillary column and nitrogen was used as carrier gas and make-up gas. This method has a relatively large linear dynamic range, 50–3,000 and 100–1,600 mg L−1 for Irganox 1010 and 1076, respectively, and limits of detection (LOD) were 20 and 40 mg L−1, respectively. The effect of conditions such as saponification temperature, and concentration and volume of potassium hydroxide were studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solvent extraction experiments of Gd with 40% saponified PC88A have been conducted from a chloride solution under different extraction conditions. The effect of saponification of an acidic extractant on the extraction of Gd was investigated. To analyze the ionic equilibria of a GdCl3 solution, we estimated the necessary thermodynamic properties from reported values. Moreover, when applying the chemical model developed in this study, we used experimental data to estimate the equilibrium constant for the extraction of Gd with partially saponified PC88A. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study describes the sample preparation and two chromatographic techniques for determination of Tinuvin 622 in polyethylene. The first part of the two methods consisting of dissolving the polyethylene in boiling xylene is followed by addition of a methanolic solution of potassium hydroxide. The polymeric light stabilizer, Tinuvin 622, is thereby saponified to 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidineethanol (diol). Addition of the methanolic solution of the saponification reagent simultaneously precipitates the polyethylene matrix. Then the diol is quantified using either gas chromatography (GC) or high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). For GC, a Macherey Nagel Optima-17 capillary column (30?m×0.25?mm ID, film thickness 0.25?µm) is used. Nitrogen is used as carrier gas and make-up gas. The detection system is a flame ionization detector. For HPLC, an octadecyl silane (ODS) column (30?cm×4?mm, particle size 5?µm) and a mobile phase methanol: water mixture (3:97, v/v) are used. Detection of analyte is carried out at 215?nm. Both methods can be used to determine Tinuvin 622 in polyethylene in the concentration range of 0.02-1%, which represents the usual application concentration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several jujube varieties from the southeast of Spain were analyzed for fatty acid and carotene contents. Triglycerides having medium-chain fatty acids were most abundant in all samples. The main fatty acids were 12:0 (18.3 ± 9.97), 10:0 (12.5 ± 19.0), 18:2n6 (9.27 ± 7.26), 16:1n7 (8.50 ± 5.77), 16:0 (7.25 ± 4.35), and 18:1n9 (5.34 ± 2.52) on total saponifiable oil. The fruits yield 1.33 ± 0.17 g/100 g saponifiable oil on a dry weight basis. Fatty acid profiles of fruits were found to be influenced by their developmental stage. Multivariable data analyses show that the samples could be grouped on the basis of their fatty acid content. Carotenes were found to be in good agreement with other fruits, varying from 4.12 to 5.98 mg/100 g on a dry weight basis. The contribution to vitamin value reach a mdium of 38 μg RE/100 g on a fresh weight basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]