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The aim of this paper is to study the mechanical behavior of corrugated board boxes, focusing attention on the strength that the boxes are able to offer in compression under stacking conditions. A preliminary design of the corrugated cardboard structures starting from the definition of each individual layer, namely the outer liners and the innermost flute, was carried out. For this purpose, three distinct types of corrugated board structures that include flutes with different characteristics, namely the high wave (C), the medium wave (B), and even the micro-wave (E), were comparatively evaluated. More specifically, the comparison is able to show the potential of the micro-wave which would eventually allow a significant saving of cellulose in the fabrication process of the boxes, thus reducing the manufacturing costs and causing a lower environmental footprint. First, experimental tests were carried out to determine the mechanical properties of the different layers of the corrugated board structures. Tensile tests were performed on samples extracted from the paper reels used as base material for the manufacturing of the liners and flutes. Instead, the edge crush test (ECT) and box compression test (BCT) were directly performed on the corrugated cardboard structures. Secondly, a parametric finite element (FE) model to allow, on a comparative basis, the study of the mechanical response of the three different types of corrugated cardboard structures was developed. Lastly, a comparison between the available experimental results and the outputs of the FE model was carried out, with the same model being also adapted to evaluate additional structures where the E micro-wave was usefully combined with the B or C wave in a double-wave configuration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of the paper is the reconstruction of a Middle Triassic buildup cropping out in the central part of the Southern Apennines. Middle Triassic reefs of the western Tethys realm are well known in the Northern and Southern Alps. In contrast, few studies of the Anisian–Ladinian carbonate platforms of the southern Apennines are available, due to the diagenetic alteration and tectonic disruption that hinder their paleoenvironmental and stratigraphic reconstruction. In an attempt to fill this gap, and to improve the knowledge on the Anisian–Ladinian carbonates of central Mediterranean area, this research is focused on a carbonate buildup cropping out in the "La Cerchiara" area, Sasso di Castalda (Basilicata, Southern Italy). The buildup, affected by intense tectonic deformation associated with the development of the Apennine thrust and fold belt, was studied using a statistical evaluation of the quantitative microfacies data. The research enabled a reconstruction of the original stratigraphic relationships of the various buildup fragments. A positive linear regression between the sample positions vs the percentage of autochthonous carbonates indicates an increase of the autochthons carbonate toward the top of the succession. The allochthonous fabrics (packstone/wackestone) at the base of the section (Unit IIIa) pass gradually upward into autochthonous (boundstones) facies (Units IIIb, I), consisting of microbialites (clotted peloidal micrite, microbial-derived laminae, and aphanitic micrite), microproblematica and cyanobacterial crusts, with few encrusting skeletal organisms. Statistical data suggest that units IIIa, IIIb, and I are in stratigraphic order while unit II appears to have been moved by tectonic dislocation from its original position at the base of the succession. The absence of metazoan reef framework, and the richness of micro-encrusters, autochthonous micrite and synsedimentary cements, suggest a mud-mound style of growth for the carbonate bodies of the Southern Apennine during the Anisian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of microfossils for the ceramic paste characterization has been revealed through firing experiment. Ceramic samples were prepared with the clay of Monte San Giorgio (Sicily, Italy), that contains many microfossils that suffered relevant changes in the microstructure and chemical composition during firing temperature. The samples were fired at different conditions according to the presumed ancient techniques. The alteration and/or decomposition of mineral phases with temperature was observed with optical and electron microscopy by monitoring the mineral modifications at different firing conditions. In order to validate our approach on archaeological material, the analyses were performed also on ceramic fragments, furnished by the Ceramics Regional Museum 'Antonino Ragona' of Caltagirone. The micropaleontological study, as component of the archaeometric analyses, seems to be a useful archaeothermometry for the evaluation of firing processes and sometimes decisive to distinguish the characteristics of the clay used in a given production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Late Miocene, the marginal areas of the Mediterranean Basin were characterized by the development of mixed siliciclastic-carbonate ramps. This paper deals with a temperate siliciclastic-carbonate ramp (late Tortonian-early Messinian in age) which crops out in the Capo Vaticano area, Southern Apennines (Italy). Carbonate components are mainly represented by calcitic skeletal fragments of coralline red algae, bryozoans, bivalves, and larger foraminifera, whereas corals, brachiopods, echinoderms, and planktonic foraminifera are subordinate. In the studied ramp, the depositional geometries of the main unit, the 'Sabbie gialle ad Heterostegina', show a gradual steepening from low/middle (dip about 2-5°) to steep slope settings (up to 25°). The microfacies observations, the quantitative analyses of the main biogenic components as well as the rhodolith shapes and growth forms allowed the differentiation between the middle and the outer ramp depositional setting and the refining of the stratigraphic framework. The middle ramp is characterized by coralline red algal debris packstone facies often associated with larger foraminiferal floatstone/packstone facies, while the outer ramp is characterized by rhodolith floatstone/rudstone facies. These facies pass basinward into typical open-marine deposits (planktonic foraminiferal facies). The taxonomic composition of the coralline red algal assemblage points to a temperate paleoclimate and emphasizes the Miocene Mediterranean phytogeographic patterns. The absence of non-skeletal grains (ooids and green algae), the paucity of Porites patch reefs, the rare occurrence of primary marine cementation, all confirm that the studied ramp was poorly lithified within a warm-temperate setting. The flat depositional profile of the ramp can be related to the absence or paucity of primary marine carbonate cements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The site of Cessaniti (Vibo Valentia, Italy) has been well known since the 19th century for the richness and good preservation of its Miocene fauna and flora. The sedimentary succession of the site represents a paralic system that evolved toward an open-marine environment recording the Tortonian transgression. The fossil assemblage contains rich invertebrate (corals, bivalves, gastropods, brachiopods, echinoids, benthic and planktonic foraminifers) and vertebrate faunas (proboscideans, rhinoceroses, giraffids, bovids, sirenids, marine turtles, and fish remains). The fossils recovered at the Cessaniti site have a relevant role in phylogenetic studies and paleogeographic reconstructions of Late Miocene environments of the southern Italy. This research is focused on the microstructure and preservation state of the fossil bones. Samples of Metaxytherium sp . bones have been analyzed to understand the diagenetic profile of the bone assemblages that characterizes the taphonomic history of the Cessaniti site. The analyses provided a comprehensive account of how bone mineral (bioapatite) has been altered and demonstrated that the post-burial processes did not significantly affect the micromorphological and biogeochemical features of the bones. The excellent preservation state of the bones strengthens the importance of the Cessaniti site for studies of the Mediterranean Miocene vertebrate fauna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Calcare di Base (CdB), a carbonate unit deposited at the base of the evaporitic succession, is a key to understanding the paleoenvironmental conditions before the Messinian Salinity Crisis. The concentration of rare earth elements and yttrium (REE + Y) in the CdB, cropping out in the Rossano Basin, were measured with inductively coupled mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The CdB shows coherent and reliable REE + Y patterns with typical characteristics of microbial carbonates: (1) enrichment in heavy REE (NdSN/YbSN = 0.52, SD = 0.09), (2) negative Ce and positive La anomalies, (3) marine Y/Ho ratios (57.08, SD = 3.07), (4) slightly positive Gd anomalies, and (5) tetrad effect especially in the La–Ce–Pr–Nd, and [Pm]–Sm–Eu–Gd tetrads. These features suggest that the CdB incorporated REEs in equilibrium with oxygenated seawater. They also corroborate the depositional model of Guido et al. in Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 255:265–283, () that maintains carbonatogenesis occurred via heterotrophic microbial activity. The REE + Y signatures of the CdB support the interpretation that these sediments were deposited in normal marine condition and cannot belong to the evaporite succession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is focused on the facies associations of an Early-Middle Norian stratigraphic succession cropping outin the Northern Calabria (Buonvicino, Cosenza). These carbonate deposits, pertaining to the Verbicaro Unit, represent a dolomitized platform characterized by a clear dominance of automicrites over skeletal metazoans. On the basis of the chronostatigraphic data and sedimentary evolution, two stratigraphic units have been distinguished: the Lower Unit (object of the present paper) and the Upper Unit. The Lower Unit consists of an Early-Middle Norian high-relief prograding carbonate platform. The Upper Unit is represented by Middle p.p.-Upper Norian basinal deposits. Three main facies associations, indicative of different depositional settings, have been identified. The inner platform facies association is characterized by automicrite (cauliflower-columnar subordinate planar stromatolites) associated with detrital carbonates (intraclastic breccia, bioclastic grainstone and packstone). Apeculiar facies is represented by megalodontid-bearing beds. Mud-cracked horizons and low-developed teepees occur quite frequently. The margin facies association is dominated by automicrite (planar to low relief stromatolites associated with thrombolitic fenestral boundstone) and detrital carbonates with subaerial exposure features. The slope facies association includes detrital carbonates (breccia/megabreccia) associated with serpulid/sphinctozoan bioconstructions and automicrite (planar stromatolites/thrombolitic boundstone). The whole carbonate body is completely dolomitized; nevertheless the morphology and microarchitecture of carbonate components (cements, grains and automicrite) is still clearly recognizable. The dolomite Mg content ranges from 40 to 48 mole%, sometimes reaching the stoichiometric value. Cements, primary and late, represent a minor component of the rock volume; they occur more frequently on the margin and upper slope setting. Quantitative tacies analyses lead to the following conclusions: The sedimentary facies and the low-diversity fossil associations seem to indicate a stressed marine environment; the platform margin probably flanked an intra-platform basin, not an open marine basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The “Calcare di Mendicino” is a mixed carbonatesiliciclastic informal unit of Miocene (Late Tortonian-Early Messinian age), that crops out extensively in the northwestern part of the Calabria. In the Scannelle quarry near Belsito (Cosenza), four stratigraphic sections were studied to define the sedimentological and paleoecological setting. The carbonate body records the development of a deep-water coral bank characterized by a low-diverse community of azooxanthellate scleractinian ( Oculina and Dendrophyllia) and stylasterine hydrozoans colonies. Two main stages of bioconstruction development can be distinguished: a thicket and a bank stage. Among the biostromal dwellers the more common are bryozoans, echinoids, benthic foraminifers, gastropods, and bivalves. A higher content of planktonic foraminifers occur in the thicket stage. The coral bank flourished within the aphotic zone, with deep currents loaded with nutrients and siliciclastic sediments. The upper part of the “Calcare di Mendicino” carbonate body has been affected by a pervasive dolomitization destroying almost completely the sedimentary structures and the biofacies. The lower part, the main object of this paper, preserves the microfacies but it experienced a widespread recrystallization obliterating the primary geochemical characteristics. The diagenetic history, partly hidden, reveals three main stages: primary marine with isopachous fibrous cements, deep burial with cavities infilled by sparry calcite, and meteoric-phreatic with dog-tooth cements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with the discussion of the role of the syndepositional cementation for the growth of the Middle Triassic pre-volcanic carbonate platforms of the Dolomites (Southern Alps, Northern Italy). The study is concentrated on the Marmolada Buildup, which escaped the facies destroying dolomitization which affected many surrounding platforms. The investigations took place within an almost isochronous uppermost Anisian palcogeographic transect, ranging from the platform-top to the margin and the upper slope. Methods used include geological mapping, sedimentological and paleontological studies, evaluation of the microfacies, as well as SEM and EDS epifluorescence analyses. The well bedded platform-top succession consists of intra-bioclast calcarenites and calcirudites, interbedded with subordinate boundstones, and organized in shallowing upward, meter scale depositional cycles, sometimes capped by subaerial surfaces. The platform margin belt is rich in boundstones and lacks a primary framework formed by organisms; metazoan skeletons form less then 5% of the rock volume. The outer margin and the uppermost slope are characterized by decimeter-scale boundstone blocks, coated and linked to each other by huge amounts of radiaxial fibrous calcite cements, arranged in concentric crusts. These cements (“evinospongiac”) represent the main component of the margin and upper slope facies. Epifluorescence analyses suggest the existence of abundant organic residual matter associated not only with the bioclasts and peloids, but also with the syndepositional cements. Organic matter likely played a significant role in carbonate cementation and was a key factor for the early lithification of the platform as well as for the sediment production. Minor element microanalyses reveal an uniform Mg content in different calcite types (2–4 Mole % MgCO3), independently from the primary nature of the components. Late diagenetic sparry calcites exhibit similar Mg values but no iron. These data point to a homogenization of minor element distribution, probably associated with a slow but long-lasting semi-closed fluid circulation, possibly related with the Neogene uplifting of the Dolomite Mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sedimentological features and the microbiofacies of the Cassian platforms (Late Ladinian-Carnian) of the Dolomites can be studied only on the basis of the socalled “Cipit boulders”, that are platform-derived olistoliths and clasts fed to the basin and escaped to the extensive dolomitization affecting the buildups. Our paper deals with the Cipit boulders occurring in the Punta Grohmann section (Wengen and S. Cassiano formations, Late Ladinian, Archelaus and Regoledanus Zones). The dominant microfacies are represented by boundstone, consisting of nearly 60% of micritic limestone occurring both as peloidal or aphanitic micrite, mostly organized into stromatolitic laminites of thrombolites. The skeletal organism ( Tubiphytes, skeletal cyanobacteria, sphinctozoan sponges, etc.) represent only a minor component of the rock (usually less than 10%). Early cements are widespread and consist both of fan-shaped calcite (replacing former aragonite), bladed isopachous magnesian calcite and radial-fibrous calcite (neomorphic after Mg-calcite). The carbonate platforms from which the olistoliths derive were made up mainly of carbonate mud that underwent early lithification, as witnessed by the considerable amount of early cements: therefore they may be regarded to as mudmounds, and more precisely as microbial mud-mounds, due to the clearly accretionary, organic-controlled nature of most micrites. The micrites, subdivided into auto- and allomicrite on the basis of micromorphological and fabric characteristics, have been tested for epifluorescence. The results confirm the organic control on the deposition of automicrite, also in the cases in which a microbial influence is not obvious (i.e. aphanitic micrite without internal organization). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]