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Wrist function is a top priority for transradial amputees. However, the combined functional, biomechanical, and cognitive impact of using a powered prosthetic wrist is unclear. Here, we quantify task performance, compensatory movements, and cognitive load while three transradial amputees performed a modified Clothespin Relocation Task using two myoelectric prostheses with and without the wrists. The two myoelectric prostheses include a commercial prosthesis with a built-in powered wrist, and a newly developed inexpensive prosthetic wrist for research purposes, called the "Utah wrist", that can be adapted to work with various sockets and prostheses. For these three participants, task failure rate decreased significantly from 66% ± 12% without the wrist to 39% ± 9% with the Utah wrist. Compensatory forward leaning movements also decreased significantly, from 24.2° ± 2.5 without the wrist to 12.6° ± 1.0 with the Utah wrist, and from 23.6° ± 7.6 to 15.3° ± 7.2 with the commercial prosthesis with an integrated wrist. Compensatory leftward bending movements also significantly decreased, from 20.8° ± 8.6 to 12.3° ± 5.3, for the commercial with an integrated wrist. Importantly, simultaneous myoelectric control of either prosthetic wrist had no significant impact on cognitive load, as assessed by the NASA Task Load Index survey and a secondary detection response task. This work suggests that functional prosthetic wrists can improve dexterity and reduce compensation without significantly increasing cognitive effort. These results, and the introduction of a new inexpensive prosthetic wrist for research purposes, can aid future research and development and guide the prescription of upper-limb prostheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging consensus in the medical and public health spheres encourages removing race and ethnicity from algorithms used in clinical decision-making. Although clinical algorithms remain appealing given their promise to lighten the cognitive load of medical practice and save time for providers, they risk exacerbating existing health disparities. Race is a strong risk marker of health outcomes, yet it is not a risk factor. The use of race as a factor in medical algorithms suggests that the effect of race is intrinsic to the patient or that its effects can be distinct or separated from other social and environmental variables. By contrast, incisive public health analysis coupled with a race-conscious perspective recognizes that race serves as a marker of countless other dynamic variables and that structural racism, rather than race, compromises the health of racially oppressed individuals. This perspective offers a historical and theoretical context for the current debates regarding the use of race in clinical algorithms, clinical and epidemiologic perspectives on "risk," and future directions for research and policy interventions that combat color-evasive racism and follow the principles of race-conscious medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For nearly two decades, augmented reality (AR) has found diverse applications in education, particularly in science education, where its efficacy has been supported by relevant theories and many empirical studies. However, previous studies have revealed the following research deficit: While AR technology appears to influence learning-related variables, at the time of this study only few research on the use of AR glasses in physics, a discipline for which this technology seems particularly promising in the context of laboratory experiments, has been found. Thus, the present study uses an experimental comparison group design to investigate the question of how the use of AR glasses in a physics laboratory experiment (compared to in a learning setting without AR) influences students' motivation to learn, their cognitive load during the learning process and their learning achievement. The study (sample size N = 75) investigated the impact of AR glasses in a physics laboratory experiment on optical polarization. Results align with prior research, indicating heightened motivation among learners using AR applications. However, the absence of a significant difference in cognitive load between AR and non-AR learners was unexpected. Despite expectations based on spatial contiguity, learners with AR showed no advantage in learning achievement, challenging existing meta-analyses in physics education. These findings suggest a need to shift focus from surface features, like specific AR technology, to the content design of AR applications. Future studies should analyze the deep structure of AR applications, identifying features conducive to learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparison is an important mechanism for learning in general, and comparing two worked examples has garnered support over the last 15 years as an effective tool for learning algebra in mainstream classrooms. This study was aimed at improving our understanding of how Modified for Language Support-Worked Example Pairs (MLS-WEPs) contribute to effective mathematics learning in an ESOL (English to Speakers of Other Languages) context. It investigated a novel instructional approach to help English Learners (ELs) develop better understanding in mathematical reasoning, problem solving, and literacy skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking). Findings suggest that MLS-WEPs not only enhanced ELs' ability to solve algebra problems, but it also improved their written explanation skills and enabled them to transfer such skills to different mathematical concepts. Moreover, when controlling for ELs' prior knowledge, the effectiveness of the MLS-WEPs intervention for performing and explaining calculations did not vary by their English proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to examine the effectiveness of facial anthropomorphism of learning material design in improving learning and other relevant outcomes. We searched Web of Science, PsycInfo, and PsycArticle for studies published before February 2023. Learning outcomes included transfer, retention, and comprehension. Other relevant outcomes included affective-motivational, effort, and experience outcomes. Outcomes that were reported in at least five independent experiments were meta-analyzed; otherwise, a narrative synthesis was performed. Subgroup analysis by participants' age and material type was employed for learning outcomes. A total of 33 independent experiments from 13 research articles were identified and analyzed. For learning outcomes, facial anthropomorphism yielded significant improvements in transfer (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.28, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.40, p < 0.001), retention (SMD 0.31, 95% CI 0.14 to 0.48, p < 0.001), and comprehension (SMD 0.46, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.64, p < 0.001). Anthropomorphism yielded stronger effect in retention among juvenile students and for static learning materials. Additionally, anthropomorphism design achieved significantly positive effects in positive affect, intrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation change, perceived difficulty, intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load, perceived learning outcome, aesthetics, and enjoyment. Nineteen outcomes were narratively analyzed and mixed results were found. Facial anthropomorphism design of multimedia learning materials can induce positive emotions in learners and improve their intrinsic motivation that in turn facilitates learners' transfer, retention, and comprehension performance. The study provides valuable insights that can guide educators and multimedia designers in applying facial anthropomorphism with learning materials to facilitate learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students increasingly carry out learning activities in online learning spaces, but they suffer from the problem of insufficient teacher guidance and emotional support. Pedagogical agents are able to communicate with learners in different roles and interactions which to a certain extent can make up for the shortcomings of online learning spaces. To further enhance the teaching effectiveness of pedagogical agents, this study explored the effects of pedagogical agents' role type and voice emotional design on learners' learning outcomes (knowledge retention / transfer) and learning process (learning interest / academic emotion / cognitive load / intimacy / social presence / learning experience). Our study tested the interaction effects of two pedagogical agents' images (teacher role/peer role) and two pedagogical agents' voices (traditional synthesized voices/emotional synthesized voices) using a sample of 206 s grade students. The results show that the emotional design of voice does not have an obvious impact in relieving students' emotional stress and improving their learning process and outcomes, however the interaction effect of peer role and voice emotional design does have clear advantages. The emotional design of voice may increase learners' extrinsic cognitive load, therefore this design should try to minimize the extrinsic cognitive load, pay attention to guiding learners' intrinsic cognitive load, and promote the related cognitive load. Meanwhile, in the design process of pedagogical agents, we should work to enhance intimacy and learning experience, rendering pleasurable emotions which will lessen learners' anxiety and boredom through the emotional design of role types and voices. To conclude, the interaction effect of character and emotional voice has a practical application prospect only when utilized with the appropriate role type and reasonable voice emotionalization design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has consistently demonstrated that students often possess an inadequate understanding of fundamental quantum optics concepts, even after formal instruction. Findings from physics education research suggest that introducing a mathematical formalism to describe quantum optical phenomena may enhance students' conceptual understanding of quantum optics. This paper investigates whether using formal descriptions of quantum optics phenomena – such as photon anticorrelation at a beamsplitter or single-photon interference in a Michelson interferometer – expressed in Dirac notation, can support secondary school students in developing functional thinking about photons. To investigate this, we conducted a clusterrandomized field study, comparing the improvement in functional thinking between 67 students in the intervention group, who were taught using both qualitative and quantitative reasoning, and 66 students in the control group, who were taught using only qualitative reasoning. The results indicate that mathematical formalism can indeed promote functional thinking about photons. However, the comparison between the intervention and control groups revealed that the control group exhibited a greater increase in functional thinking than the intervention group. In response to these findings, we conducted a follow-up study aimed at gaining a deeper understanding of the cognitive load associated with both approaches. Specifically, we compared the intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load of 71 students in the intervention group with those of 65 students in the control group. The data analysis revealed that the two groups had statistically significant differences in intrinsic cognitive load while the extraneous cognitive load did not difer statistically significant, indicating a higher mental effort associated to the quantitative reasoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have left a significant gap in researching the relationships among affective variables, cognitive factors, and learning outcomes in second language (L2) writing. To fill in this research gap, the present study set out to unveil the relationships between L2 writers' cognitive load, anxiety, and writing performance. A total of 197 Grade 12 students from a Chinese public high school were recruited. Participants were required to complete a story continuation writing task (SCWT), the L2 Writing Cognitive Load Scale, and the L2 Writing Anxiety Scale. Structural equation modeling showed that: 1) L2 learners' cognitive load had a direct effect on writing anxiety which in turn directly impacted SCWT performance; 2) L2 writing anxiety fully mediated the effect of cognitive load on SCWT performance; and 3) Cognitive load mainly influenced cognitive anxiety, a subcomponent of writing anxiety. The implications of the findings for L2 teaching and learning are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the accuracy of place name translation during remote simultaneous interpreting (RSI) when interpreters were required to use a different variant of their native language. Participants, professional English/ Mandarin from mainland China, were divided into two groups: the Taiwan group, using the Taiwanese Mandarin variant, and the control group, using the mainland variant. The source speech consisted of three lists of place names, some of which had the same Chinese translation in both the mainland China Mandarin variant and the Taiwanese Mandarin variant, while others did not. The two groups of participants performed RSI from English into Chinese. The analysis focused on the third item in each list, chosen due to the differences in Chinese translations between the two Mandarin variants. Results showed no significant difference in the number of incorrect translations for the first test item between the two groups. However, significant variations were observed for the second and third test items, potentially linked to progressive mental fatigue and increased cognitive demand faced by the Taiwan group participants. This suggests that using a non-habitual language variant can impact the accuracy of RSI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While individuals fail to assess their mental health subjectively in their day-to-day activities, the recent development of consumer-grade wearable devices has enormous potential to monitor daily workload objectively by acquiring physiological signals. Therefore, this work collected consumer-grade physiological signals from twenty-four participants, following a four-hour cognitive load elicitation paradigm with self-chosen tasks in uncontrolled environments and a four-hour mental workload elicitation paradigm in a controlled environment. The recorded dataset of approximately 315 hours consists of electroencephalography, acceleration, electrodermal activity, and photoplethysmogram data balanced across low and high load levels. Participants performed office-like tasks in the controlled environment (mental arithmetic, Stroop, N-Back, and Sudoku) with two defined difficulty levels and in the uncontrolled environments (mainly researching, programming, and writing emails). Each task label was provided by participants using two 5-point Likert scales of mental workload and stress and the pairwise NASA-TLX questionnaire. This data is suitable for developing real-time mental health assessment methods, conducting research on signal processing techniques for challenging environments, and developing personal cognitive load assistants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In terms of instructional sequencing and cognitive load research, it remains unclear what effect different instructional sequences have on cognitive load and how to use problem-solving support within instructional sequences to reduce cognitive load. The current study examines how instructional sequencing and problem-solving support interact with different types of cognitive load and learner performance. University students (n = 254) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: an explicit instruction first sequence, an unsupported problem-solving first sequence, and a supported problem-solving first sequence. Results show that intrinsic load did not differ across the three conditions, extraneous load was lowest in the explicit instruction first and supported problem-solving first conditions, germane load was highest in the supported problem-solving first condition, and performance was highest in the explicit instruction first condition. Providing insight into specific ways instructional sequencing and problem-solving support can reduce cognitive load; results suggest that either problem-solving activities need support or explicit instruction is needed before problem-solving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need to revisit movement dataset(s) currently used as egress determinants to assess whether they are truly representative of the current diverse occupant base. This is particularly important with our aging population as these sets contain very limited amounts of recent, age-specific data for older adults. This study provides data on walking speeds of older adults, obtained during standardized tests of walking, and compares those to default walking speeds used in current egress models. From experimental, short-distance walking trials (n = 451), it was seen that sex, increasing age, use of walking aids, those who have previously experienced a stroke (n = 116) and walking under cognitive load all resulted in decreases in walking speed. First iteration Pathfinder simulations showed that more realistic inputs for population walking speed resulted in simulated egress times that were on average 8 s slower compared to use of the current default range of walking speeds. Results suggest that the assumption of a uniform population in egress modelling, and consequently the standard practice of using a default walking speed for older adult occupants, should be reconsidered since, in reality the older adult population is extremely heterogeneous with regards to mobility, as reflected in the variability in walking speeds in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear (CBRN) operations require a significant reduction in the time between decision making and decision execution. This calls for effective decision support to improve situational awareness (SA) at the lowest practical echelon. Applied Research Associates, Inc. conducted a 22-month project to research Avoidance and Protection, the CBRN phase with greatest uncertainty and cognitive work demands, to determine how the Android Tactical Assault Kit (ATAK) could best support operator procedures and decision making. We confirmed U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) CBRN doctrine, created battalion commander, medical officer, CBRN Specialist, and Soldier or Marine use cases, developed a concept video around existing CBRN passive defense workflows and tasking, then reviewed the concept with CBRN Specialists returning from deployment as well as Integrated Early Warning and CBRN Support to Command-and-Control developers. Resulting improvement to decision support can more effectively sustain the operator's observe, orient, decide, and act (OODA) loop while minimizing cognitive load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anatomy, the study of human structure, is foundational to medicine. Its language has a long history, with contributions from authors hailing from diverse cultures and countries, adhering to various scientific traditions, speaking different languages, and practicing medicine across a wide gamut of specialties. The resultant disparity in terms provides challenges both for students in learning and for interdisciplinary communication. We report here on a user-friendly look-up web site, "AnatomicalTerms.info" that links a Terminologica Anatomica term to alternative terms in usage: synonyms, polysemes, eponyms, homonyms, and terms in other languages. Accompanying open-source definitions are generated with the help of "Definition Machine" software, that supports creating the most concise and accessible definitions for anatomical terms, eschewing superfluous description, thus reducing cognitive load of learners of anatomy looking up terms. AnatomicalTerms.info is a readily accessible online source for both the authoritative and alternatively used terms that can accurately cross-reference and/or disambiguate anatomical structures across disciplinary and cultural divides. As such, it can serve as a useful educational and clinical resource that is also flexibly open to additions and expansion as anatomical and clinical needs dictate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

None of the existing reviews or meta-analyses have focused on personalized learning that accommodates learners’ interests. To address this issue, we conducted this meta-analysis to examine the effects of personalized learning by interest on self-reports of interest and cognitive load, retention, and transfer, as well as potential moderators of these effects. Based on 26 interest effect sizes (n = 5,335), 8 cognitive load effect sizes (n = 1,228), 46 retention effect sizes (n = 5,991), and 6 transfer effect sizes (n = 375) from 34 publications, our analysis revealed that a) personalized learning by interest had a medium-to-large effect on interest (g = 0.55), a medium-to-large effect on cognitive load (g = 0.54), a medium effect on retention (g = 0.48), and a medium effect on transfer (g = 0.36); b) the effect on interest was moderated by the diagnostic approach, grain size, and the domain, c) the effect on retention varied across learners from different continents, and d) the effect on retention was larger for quasi-experimental studies than experimental studies. Results are discussed in terms of their implications, limitations, and potential to inform future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Word reading fluency is crucial for early L2 development. Moreover, the practice of digital reading has become increasingly common for both children and adults. Therefore, the current study investigated factors that explain digital word reading fluency in English (L2) among Chinese children from Hong Kong. Eighty-six children (age: M = 9.78, SD = 1.42) participated in a digital silent word reading test using a mobile phone, a computer, or a tablet. This is a 10-minute timed test of English word reading. Overall, children's digital word reading fluency was highly correlated with print word reading fluency, even when measured a year apart. A hierarchical regression model revealed that socio-economic status (β =.333), grade (β =.455), and English reading motivation (β =.375) were positively and uniquely associated with performance in digital reading. These predictors explained 48.6% of the total variance in task performance. Two additional variables, i.e., the type of reading device and extraneous cognitive load, were included as well. Digital word reading fluency was significantly poorer when done using a phone as compared to a computer (β = -.187). No significant difference was found between reading on a tablet and a computer. Extraneous cognitive load (β = -.255) negatively and uniquely explained digital word reading fluency as well. Overall, the model explained 58.8% of the total variance. The present study represents the first attempt to highlight a comprehensive set of predictors of digital word reading fluency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive load, which alters neuronal activity, is essential to understanding how the brain reacts to stress. This work aims to classify electroencephalogram (EEG) signals to detect cognitive load by extracting features from intrinsic mode functions (IMFs). The variational mode decomposition (VMD) was used for the eight-level decomposition of each EEG channel data (4 s). Next, entropy-based features were extracted from each IMF. The extracted features were fed to supervised machine learning (ML) classifiers: light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), and categorical boosting (CatBoost) for classification. Experiments are conducted on two public EEG datasets, multi-arithmetic tasks (MAT) and simultaneous task EEG workload (STEW). The performance is measured via accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value, log-loss score, F1 score, and area under receiver operating curves (AUROC). The proposed LightGBM classifier technique demonstrates superior classification accuracy rates of 97.22% and 95.51% for the MAT and STEW datasets. The experiment results demonstrated that the proposed technique detects cognitive load more precisely than existing methods. The LightGBM classifier model enhanced accuracy and sensitivity in predicting outcomes through the utilization of ML and data mining methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication is a fundamental aspect of human interaction, yet many individuals must speak in less-than-ideal acoustic environments daily. Adapting their speech to ensure intelligibility in these varied settings can impose a significant cognitive burden. Understanding this burden on talkers has significant implications for the design of public spaces and workplace environments, as well as speaker training programs. The aim of this study was to examine how room acoustics and speaking style affect cognitive load through self-rating of mental demand and pupillometry. Nineteen adult native speakers of American English were instructed to read sentences in both casual and clear speech—a technique known to enhance intelligibility—across three levels of reverberation (0.05 s, 1.2 s, and 1.83 s at 500–1000 Hz). Our findings revealed that speaking style consistently affects the cognitive load on talkers more than room acoustics across the tested reverberation range. Specifically, pupillometry data suggested that speaking in clear speech elevates the cognitive load comparably to speaking in a room with long reverberation, challenging the conventional view of clear speech as an 'easy' strategy for improving intelligibility. These results underscore the importance of accounting for talkers' cognitive load when optimizing room acoustics and developing speech production training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose Methods Results Conclusions Level of Evidence The study aimed to evaluate the impact of neurocognitive reliance on jump distance and lower extremity kinematics in individuals who had undergone anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). This was achieved by comparing hop performance under standard and neurocognitive conditions.Thirty‐two patients after ACLR and 32 healthy controls (CTRL) participated. Both groups performed a single‐leg hop for distance (SLHD) and two neurocognitive hop tests, each designed to evaluate distinct aspects of neurocognition. The neurocognitive tests included the reaction SLHD (R‐SLHD), measuring reaction to a central stimulus and working memory SLHD (WM‐SLHD) assessing response to a memorized stimulus amidst distractor stimuli. Distances were assessed for the three‐hop tests. In addition, joint kinematics were collected to calculate lower extremity coordination of the lower extremity. SLHD performance was defined as the mean hop distance per condition per leg for each participant and was analyzed using a mixed ANOVA with condition and leg as the within‐subjects factors and the group (ACLR or CTRL) as the between‐subjects factor. Differences in joint coordination variability were analyzed using two‐sample t‐test statistical parametric mapping (SPM) with linear regression.The WM‐SLHD resulted in a significantly decreased jump distance compared with the standard hop test both for ACLR and CTRL. Furthermore, the leg difference within the ACLR group increased under higher cognitive load as tested with the WM‐SLHD, indicating leg‐specific adaptations in lower extremity coordination.Neurocognitive single‐leg hop tests resulted in reduced jump distance in CTRL and ACLR. The neurocognitive hop test revealed changes in coordination variability for the CTRL and the uninjured leg of ACLR individuals, whereas the injured leg's coordination variability remained unaltered, suggesting persistent cognitive control of movements post‐ACLR.Level III. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Color has been investigated as a signaling cue in multimedia learning environments, guiding the learner's attention and as an emotional design element, increasing the learner's motivation and, thus, improving learning outcomes. Retrieval cues (e.g., visual cues, odor, sound) facilitating memory retrieval have been primarily investigated in learning simple word lists. Contrary to additional retrieval cues, the background color is a component that is always present in multimedia learning environments. This study investigates if the background color of learning texts as retrieval cue can enhance learning and affect cognitive load and motivation. Hypotheses are formulated according to the Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Multimedia (CATLM) and in the setting of context-dependent memory, specifically the Information, associated Context, and Ensemble Theory (ICE). A 2 (related vs. unrelated background color) × 2 (with vs. without colors in the learning test) -factorial between-subjects design with an additional control group was utilized. For the control group, the background of the learning texts and learning questions was white. In total, 191 native German speakers were randomly assigned to the five groups. The findings indicate that relying solely on the background color as a retrieval cue is insufficient. Instead of facilitating memory retrieval, the background color remains context information stored separately from the item information. However, the results should be approached carefully as learning outcomes may be subject to ceiling and floor effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In visual arts education, understanding abstract concepts and intricate symbolism is crucial for appreciating traditional art. However, traditional teaching methods often fail to facilitate students' grasp of these ideas, resulting in reduced engagement and inefficient learning. To overcome this, our study integrates Augmented Reality (AR) technology into a card game to enhance visual arts education. Using a quasi-experimental approach and a gamification model, we evaluated the influence of AR technology in the card game. Sixty Primary 6 students participated, divided into an experimental group (using an AR-based card game) and a control group (using a conventional card game). The study concluded that AR technology significantly improved student performance, flow state, and reduced cognitive load, highlighting its potential to enhance visual arts education. This study contributes to the ongoing research on Augmented Reality Game-Based Learning (AR-GBL) for visual arts education. It also guides art teachers in effectively integrating AR technology into authentic classroom teaching environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Videos are pivotal tools in pre-service teacher training. First-person, third-person, and 360-degree perspectives are commonly used types and the optimal type remains undetermined. In our study involving pre-service teachers (PSTs), we evaluated the efficacy of 360-degree videos against the first-person and third-person perspective videos concerning spatial presence, cognitive load, classroom quality rating accuracy, and classroom observation. Our results revealed that PSTs exposed to 360-degree videos exhibited superior performance in spatial presence, classroom quality rating accuracy, and classroom observation compared to the other two video types. This underscores that 360-degree videos enhance PSTs' skills in discerning, categorizing, and interpreting classroom events. Although there were no marked differences in cognitive load across the groups, cognitive load was found to modulate the influence of video type on classroom observation. Notably, at higher cognitive load levels, the 360-degree videos were more advantageous. The significance of this study is twofold: it empirically substantiates the superiority of 360-degree videos in refining pedagogical skills and it reveals the modulating role of cognitive load. These findings inform innovative instructional interventions and pedagogical strategies, emphasizing the need for using 360-degree videos in teacher education and encouraging higher learner engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The globalization of educational processes has intensified the introduction of interactive learning forms. Education systems around the world have undergone transformation, modernization, and innovation. These processes also implied the implementation of advanced technological tools to improve the quality of teaching various subjects, including further mathematics. Remote nano-learning is one of the current technologies that have the potential to turn the presentation of material into a self-regulating individual process. Therefore, the purpose of the study is to determine the impact of nano-learning technology such as cloud and MatLab app on the academic performance and cognitive load of further mathematics students. Cloud and MatLab apps are the new technologies designed to improve the teaching of and learning of Further Mathematics. The main study method was testing, and 100 students. The students additionally studied mathematics in the field of electronics and automation. The Pearson correlation coefficient (0.88, 0.85, 0.76), Shapiro-Wilk test (0.94), and t-test were utilized for statistical processing. The results showed that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group. According to the result, there was a significant difference between the test results of the two groups, indicating the effectiveness of the experiment. No significant differences were found in the cognitive load of the two groups. The limiting factors of the study were the short study time, sample size, different learning styles, and individual characteristics of students. Based on the evidence presented, it is possible to develop and implement effective teaching methods that contribute to academic progress in further mathematics. This study can help university teachers explain to understand complex mathematical problems to their students and use cloud technology and MATLAB software to solve and reduce the complexity of tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although driving to and from work is an unavoidable part of the working life of many people, little is known about the relationship between work-related and drive-related cognitive load in daily commuting. To explore those relationships, Study 1 examined the effect of a demanding driving period on the performance of a subsequent cognitive task (mimicking a home-to-work commuting scenario). That driving-related higher cognitive load than the control condition was associated with an increased accuracy in the following cognitive task. Study 2 examined the effects of a period of demanding cognitive tasks on the performance of a subsequent driving task (mimicking a work-to-home commuting scenario). Although no reliable effect on speed or lane keeping ability in a virtual motorway scenario was observed, the completion of tasks under the higher cognitive load condition before driving led to a modest increase in the distance kept from the car ahead. The two sets of findings suggest that moderate levels of cognitive load could modulate the performance in timely contiguous tasks. The process underpinning possible spillover effects with such timestamp is unknow but might be linked to the activation of long-lasting attentional processes involving alertness. Hence, this exploratory study can be a catalyst for future studies investigating the interplay between cognitive load and driving in scenarios of daily commuting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to examine the influence of the role of immersive technology on perceived learning's effectiveness by considering the cognitive load of users when using VR-based learning media. This study involved a total of 91 respondents who had attended virtual reality-based learning training. In this research, SmartPLS was used to test the measurement and structural models. This research was conducted through virtual reality-based learning training, to measure the effect of using VR on perceived effectiveness, with cognitive load as the moderator. The research results support all the hypotheses. Ultimately, cognitive overload moderates the relationship between reflective thinking and perceived learning's effectiveness. The lower the cognitive load of the user when using VR, the greater the positive effect reflective thinking has on perceived learning's effectiveness, and vice versa. There are still many contradictions regarding the effectiveness of VR in learning, so this research fills the gap by examining the effect immersive technology has on learning outcomes, by considering the cognitive load of users when using VR-based learning media. This research has several practical implications. First, VR could be proposed as a valuable investment for educational institutions as a learning tool. Second, it is very important to develop VR that is adapted to the context and learning objectives, to optimize its effectiveness. Third, VR developers should focus on creating simplified menus that are easy to use. By reducing the cognitive overload, users will find VR more comfortable and enjoyable to use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the utility of virtual simulation as an inclusive learning activity. Using a framework derived from literature, the Virtual Simulated International Placements (VSIP) were developed, and we explored the experiences of learners and facilitators to identify the pedagogical practices that they adopted during the learning activities with an approach inspired by phenomenography. Data from focus groups with 6 learners and 6 facilitators who participated in the VSIP were analysed along with 64 survey responses from learner participants. The findings of the study indicate there were three key concepts of the virtual simulation which supported inclusive learning environments. Overall, the participants' reflections indicated that the VSIP offered an accessible and usable way to engage in international placements that supported a personalised learning journey. Finally, the findings suggested VSIP should incorporate a diverse range of perspectives, backgrounds, and experiences to create and promote an inclusive learning environment. Further research can explore if these activities create a greater acceptance of different peoples' perspectives and cultures as well as impact stereotypes and biases. In addition, key concepts that made this teaching and learning activity inclusive could aid future investigation into how and why virtual simulations can be inclusive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated pedagogical agent (with/without) and feedback (explanatory/confirmatory) types on achievement, flow experience, and cognitive load in a digital game-based learning environment. We developed a game about spreadsheets and prepared four versions of the game in the context of pedagogical agent and feedback types. Through the mixed-methods sequential exploratory design, we applied game versions in four experimental groups (154 undergraduate students) within a two-week spreadsheet subject. We collected quantitative (achievement test, flow experience scale, cognitive load scale, elapsed time, skill, and challenge-level questions) and qualitative (semi-structured interview technique and open-ended interview form) data. According to the results, the achievement scores of all participants increased regardless of the pedagogical agent and feedback type. There was no significant difference in cognitive load, flow experience, skill level, or challenge level according to the pedagogical agent and feedback types. Confirmatory feedback groups spent more time than explanatory feedback groups. The dependent variables had significant relationships. Students expressed that game-based learning promoted improvements in the learning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional (3D) learning resources are increasingly being integrated into classrooms and becoming important teaching tools. Learning resilience is a crucial factor affecting learning outcomes. However, the impact of 3D learning resources on learning resilience has not been received sufficient academic attention. This study constructs a structural equation model based on the broaden-and-build theory and cognitive load theory to examine the impact of 3D learning resources on learning resilience. To examine the mechanism of this impact, including the mediating roles of positive emotion and cognitive load, we collected 963 valid questionnaires from college students in Shandong Province, China. The results indicate that 3D learning resources are significantly positively correlated with positive emotion and learning resilience and negatively correlated with cognitive load. Moreover, cognitive load is negatively correlated with learning resilience. Positive emotion and cognitive load serve as mediators in the relationship between 3D learning resources and learning resilience. Therefore, developing high-quality 3D learning resources, cultivating positive emotions among students and reducing cognitive load can enhance college students' learning resilience and mitigate academic risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To support people working in dangerous industries, virtual reality (VR) can ensure operators manipulate standardized tasks and work collaboratively to deal with potential risks. Surprisingly, limited research has paid attention to the cognitive load of operators in their collaborative tasks, especially via VR interfaces. Once task demands become complex, many researchers focus on optimizing the design of the interaction interfaces to reduce the cognitive load on the operator. In this paper, we propose a new collaborative VR system with edge enhancement to support two teleoperators working in the VR environment to remote control an uncrewed ground vehicle. We use a compared experiment to evaluate the collaborative VR systems, focusing on the time spent on tasks and the total number of operations. Our results show that the total number of processes and the cognitive load during operations were significantly lower in the two-person group than in the single-person group. Our study sheds light on designing VR systems to support collaborative work with respect to the flow of work of teleoperators instead of simply optimizing the design outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incidental learning is a type of informal learning occurring consciously with unintentional acts. Within the scope of this study, informal learning on a digital learning platform was examined in the context of cognitive load. The current study investigated the changes in incidental learning within two different scenarios: extraneous irrelevant content (V1) vs. extraneous relevant content (V2) represented in various modalities. Data were collected in a mixed manner using eye-tracker and electroencephalogram devices. Both incidental and actual learning scores of V2 group were higher than the V1 group. For the incidental learning context, visual modality was superior to other modalities, but the dynamic visuals were perceived as disturbing in comparison to static ones. The V1 group had higher number of errors during task engagement. The eye fixation patterns of both groups were similar to each other. Fixation durations on the dynamic visual extraneous content area were recorded the longest among all extraneous content. The V2 group reported higher mental effort. The efficiency metric calculations yielded contradictory findings depending on the cognitive load values obtained from self-ratings vs. cognitive load index (CLI). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an important resource in online learning, video lectures have attracted considerable research attention in the impact of teachers' nonverbal guidance behaviors on learning. However, few studies have focused on secondary education, and it remains unclear whether the interaction between different guidance frequencies and types leads to variations in the effectiveness of guidance. This study tested the mutual effects of instructor's guidance frequency and type on secondary school students' learning performance (retention scores, transfer scores) and affective experiences (cognitive load, learning experience, learning satisfaction). A total of 202 secondary school students were randomly assigned to watch one of the four video lectures, using a 2 (guidance frequency: low-frequency guidance, high-frequency guidance) × 2 (guidance type: gesture guidance, gesture + gaze guidance) between-groups design. The study was conducted in a multimedia classroom setting. The results showed that low-frequency guidance by instructors contributed to improved learning performance. Specifically, under low-frequency guidance conditions, gesture guidance was more effective in enhancing retention, while gesture + gaze guidance facilitated learners' transfer. Moreover, low-frequency gesture + gaze guidance by teachers resulted in better affective experiences for students, as evident in cognitive load, learning experience, and learning satisfaction. Therefore, it is recommended that instructors lecturing for secondary students adopt appropriate types of low-frequency guidance according to the level of learning difficulty to improve teaching effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-explanation prompts in example-based learning are usually directed backwards: Learners are required to self-explain problem-solving steps just presented (retrospective prompts). However, it might also help to self-explain upcoming steps (anticipatory prompts). The effects of the prompt type may differ for learners with various expertise levels, with anticipatory prompts being better for learners with more expertise. In an experiment, we employed extensive modelling examples and different types of self-explanations prompts to teach 78 automotive apprentices a complex and job-relevant problem-solving strategy, namely the diagnosis of car malfunctions. We tested the effects of these modelling examples and self-explanation prompts on problem-solving strategy knowledge and skill, self-efficacy, and cognitive load while learning. In two conditions, the apprentices learned with modelling examples and received either retrospective or anticipatory prompts. The third condition was a control condition receiving no modelling examples, but the respective open problems. In comparison with the control condition, modelling examples did not promote learning. However, we observed differential effects of the self-explanation prompts depending on the learner's prior knowledge level. Apprentices with higher prior knowledge learned more when learning with anticipatory prompts. Apprentices with less prior knowledge experienced a greater increase in self-efficacy and a higher germane cognitive load when learning with retrospective prompts. These findings suggest using different self-explanation prompts for learners possessing varying levels of expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The optimal choice of the level of realism in instructional visualizations is a difficult task. Previous studies suggest that realism can overwhelm learners, but a growing body of research demonstrates that realistic details can enhance learning. In the first experiment (n = 107), it was assessed whether learning using realistic visualizations can be distracting and therefore particularly benefits from pre-training. Participants learned the anatomy of the parotid gland using labeled visualizations. While pre-training did not have an effect, a more realistic visualization enhanced learning compared to a schematic visualization. In the second experiment (n = 132), a schematic diagram was compared to a more realistic style featuring basic depth cues, and a highly realistic visualization containing a detailed surface. Regarding retention performance, no significant differences were found. However, an interesting pattern regarding subjective cognitive load ratings emerged: the schematic version received the highest cognitive load ratings, while the version featuring simplified shading was rated as least demanding. The version containing simplified depth cues also elicited lower cognitive load ratings than the detailed visualization. The two experiments demonstrate that fears concerning a detrimental effect of realistic details should not be over-generalized. While schematic visualizations may be easier to visually process in some cases, extracting depth information from contour drawings adds cognitive demands to a learning task. Thus, it is advisable that computer-generated visualizations contain at least simplified forms of shading, while the addition of details does not appear to have a strong positive effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of research has demonstrated that teachers' judgements may be biased by the demographics and characteristics of the students they teach. However, less work has investigated the contexts in which teachers may be most vulnerable to bias. In two pre-registered experimental studies we explored whether the quality of students' work, and the cognitive load placed on the grader, would influence the emergence of biases relating to socioeconomic status (SES) and ethnicity. In Study 1, teachers (N = 397) graded work of either high or low quality that had ostensibly been written by a student who varied in terms of SES and ethnicity. We found that SES and—to a lesser extent—ethnicity biases were more likely to manifest when the standard of work was below average, largely favouring a student from an affluent White background. In Study 2, an undergraduate sample (N = 334) provided judgements based on an identical piece of work written by a student who varied by SES and ethnicity. Importantly, they formulated these judgements whilst working under high or low cognitive load, which was manipulated via a simultaneous listening task. Results showed that under high cognitive load, a student from an affluent White British background was afforded a boost in grading that was not afforded to Black Caribbean and/or lower SES students. These findings highlight contexts in which teachers may be most prone to biased judgements and should be used by educational institutions to de-bias their workflows, workloads and workforces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adult learners are a significant proportion of distance learners and many of these students are working mothers. Several instructional design models center the learner, and this requires understanding the learner needs, strengths, and context. There is a gap in the literature describing the experience of modern working mother students in distance education. To understand this experience, the researchers interviewed and observed six academically high-achieving working mother students as they participated in their distance education courses during the pandemic. A discourse analysis approach was utilized to analyze the data. This extreme sample revealed several strategies that these students used to be successful despite their challenges. The findings suggest that understanding the experiences of distance learners as they study in the home are important for effective course design. More specifically, working mothers face significant distractions in their study environments, but the cognitive load can be reduced by making use of their prior knowledge, scaffolding instruction, and encouraging social presence. Additional strategies from the literature that address these constructs are provided for instructors and instructional designers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the complex presentation of multi-source information and the intertwining and fusion of task types, multitasking and task interruptions have become the norm of human-machine cooperative operations in complex industrial systems. Aiming to address nested and overlapping multitasking and task interruptions, this study investigated their interaction mechanisms on task performance and cognitive load. The study utilized AX-CPT and VFT to form a multitasking situation, and simple math problems with positive and negative judgments to form a task interruption. It tested the task performance of 30 subjects under task interruptions (with interruption vs. without interruption) with different task types (single task vs. multitasking) and analyzed the interaction effects of multitasking and task interruptions on task performance and cognitive load. Finally, the study aimed to verify the moderating role of individual resilience. The results showed that (1) multitasking resulted in a significant decrease in correctness, a significant increase in reaction time, and a significant increase in cognitive load; (2) Task interruptions significantly increased reaction time and cognitive load, while they decreased task correctness only during monotasking; this effect was not significant in multitasking; (3) Moderate and high resilience significantly modulated the increase in cognitive load associated with task interruptions during multitasking. These findings are instrumental in optimizing human-machine collaborative job scheduling, enhancing workflow efficiency, identifying the equilibrium between task performance and cognitive load, and providing crucial support for task management and performance improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DT systems, characterized by real-time capabilities, high precision, and high integration, have become essential in various domains. In the context of cultural heritage, a DT system encompasses comprehensive information about heritage sites, contextual data, and expert knowledge, forming a complex dynamic system. The substantial volume of information and diverse sources significantly increases the cognitive load for management personnel in understanding on-site situations. This study, from the perspective of situational awareness, introduces X-reality technologies (VR and AR) into DT systems for cultural heritage risk management. The aim is to evaluate the effectiveness of different X-reality technologies in cultural heritage risk perception and their impact mechanisms. A total of 184 participants were divided into two groups and experienced three different applications (2D desktop, VR, and AR). Using situational awareness rating techniques, participants' responses were measured across three dimensions: attention resource demand, attention resource supply, and understanding of the situation. SEM was employed to estimate the stability of the scale data. The results indicate that, compared to traditional 2D desktops, both VR and AR demonstrate advantages in enhancing heritage risk situational awareness. However, in AR mode, no significant advantages were found in the dimensions of attention resource demand and attention resource supply compared to traditional 2D desktop applications. Furthermore, a significant difference in immersion between VR and AR was found to affect the attention resource demand dimension. Although the results suggest differences in the interactivity of VR and AR in affecting the attention resource demand dimension, no significant differences were found. By comprehensively understanding the functional mechanisms of X-reality technologies in influencing cultural heritage risk situational awareness, this study provides design references for constructing DT systems for cultural heritage risk management. Additionally, it offers insights for heritage site managers, experts, and stakeholders to enhance risk perception efficiency, promoting more effective risk assessment, analysis, and strategic decision-making, thereby reducing damage to cultural heritage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gait cycle variability during steady walking, described by the stride interval time series, has been used as a gait-stability-related measure. In particular, the positive persistency in the stride intervals with 1/f-like fluctuation and reduction of the persistency are the well-documented metrics that can characterize gait patterns of healthy young adults and elderly including patients with neurological diseases, respectively. Here, we examined effects of a dual task on gait cycle variability in healthy young adults, based on the mean and standard deviation statistics as well as the positive persistency of the stride intervals during steady walking on a treadmill. Specifically, three gait conditions were examined: control condition, non-cognitive task with holding a smartphone in front of the chest using their dominant hand and looking fixedly at a blank screen of the smartphone, and cognitive motor task with holding a smartphone as in the non-cognitive task and playing a puzzle game displayed on the smartphone by one-thumb operation. We showed that only the positive persistency, not the mean and standard deviation statistics, was affected by the cognitive and motor load of smartphone usage in the cognitive condition. More specifically, the positive persistency exhibited in the control and the non-cognitive conditions was significantly reduced in the cognitive condition. Our results suggest that the decrease in the positive persistency during the cognitive task, which might represent the deterioration of healthy gait pattern, is caused endogenously by the cognitive and motor load, not necessarily by the reduction of visual field as often hypothesized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In multiobjective optimization problems, Pareto optimal solutions representing different tradeoffs cannot be ordered without incorporating preference information of a decision maker (DM). In interactive methods, the DM takes an active part in the solution process and provides preference information iteratively. Between iterations, the DM can learn how achievable the preferences are, learn about the tradeoffs, and adjust the preferences. Different interactive methods have been proposed in the literature, but the question of how to select the best-suited method for a problem to be solved remains partly open. We propose an experimental design for evaluating interactive methods according to several desirable properties related to the cognitive load experienced by the DM, the method's ability to capture preferences and its responsiveness to changes in the preferences, the DM's satisfaction in the overall solution process, and their confidence in the final solution. In the questionnaire designed, we connect each questionnaire item to be asked with a relevant research question characterizing these desirable properties of interactive methods. We also conduct a between-subjects experiment to compare three interactive methods and report interesting findings. In particular, we find out that trade-off-free methods may be more suitable for exploring the whole set of Pareto optimal solutions, while classification-based methods seem to work better for fine-tuning the preferences to find the final solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated the effect of using AR technology to develop environmental literacy (RQ1), motivation (RQ2), and perceived cognitive load (RQ3) among high school students. The sample of participants in this study included 155 10th -grade students in general education. They took a semester-long Natural Resource Ecology course. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: experimental (n = 77) and control (n = 78). The use of the immersive application in the experimental group was the only difference between the learning approaches. The main research method was a questionnaire based on three scales: The Environmental Literacy scale, the Motivation scale, and the Cognitive Load scale. To compare the results between the groups and make intra-group comparisons of the periods before and after the intervention, the study use the Student's t-test (p < 0.05). The findings show that the positive effect of the immersive application-based course on students was sufficiently noticeable in terms of environmental literacy (d = 0.612) and motivation (d = 0.673). At the same time, its effect in reducing the cognitive load was slightly more than average (d = 0.549). This evidence represents essential information for potential improvements to programs and courses using technology for environmental and nature conservation education. The findings of this study enable curriculum modifications for high school students. The integration of immersive technologies into education develops and enhances their environmental knowledge and skills. Future research includes introducing and studying a separate ecology course in elementary school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Eye gaze tracking and pupillometry are evolving areas within the field of tele-robotic surgery, particularly in the context of estimating cognitive load (CL). However, this is a recent field, and current solutions for gaze and pupil tracking in robotic surgery require assessment. Considering the necessity of stable pupillometry signals for reliable cognitive load estimation, we compare the accuracy of three eye trackers, including head and console-mounted designs. Methods: We conducted a user study with the da Vinci Research Kit (dVRK), to compare the three designs. We collected eye tracking and dVRK video data while participants observed nine markers distributed over the dVRK screen. We compute and analyze pupil detection stability and gaze prediction accuracy for the three designs. Results: Head-worn devices present better stability and accuracy of gaze prediction and pupil detection compared to console-mounted systems. Tracking stability along the field of view varies between trackers, with gaze predictions detected at invalid zones of the image with high confidence. Conclusion: While head-worn solutions show benefits in confidence and stability, our results demonstrate the need to improve eye tacker performance regarding pupil detection, stability, and gaze accuracy in tele-robotic scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotions can change individuals' perceptions of social distance and, consequently, their deceptive behavior. Anger is a highly destructive emotion; however, its effects on social distance and deception are unclear. This study adopted a 2 (emotion: anger, neutral) × 3 (social distance: friend, stranger, acquaintance) × 2 (task type: baseline, win–win deception) mixed experimental design to investigate the effects of anger on deceptive behavior when facing others at different social distances. The results showed that individuals in a neutral emotional state tended to engage in deceptive behaviors that benefited both parties when facing strangers, friends, and acquaintances, implying mutual gain. However, in a negative emotional state (i.e., anger), individuals showed a reduced tendency to benefit themselves. The study discovered a phenomenon termed the "kill the familiar effect." When individuals are in a state of anger, they make decisions that are more harmful to the interests of acquaintances compared with those of strangers or friends. This suggests that anger results in a heavier cognitive load, and uncertainty about acquaintance relationships moderates the cognitive processes in the deception decisions of angry individuals. This study's results regarding the effects of emotions on deceptive behavior have practical implications for various interpersonal interactions, conflict resolution strategies, and decision-making processes. The study is limited by its focus on a specific set of emotions and social distances; thus, further research in this area is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simulation is an effective training method for neonatal resuscitation (NR). However, the limitations brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, and other resource constraints, have necessitated exploring alternatives. Virtual reality (VR), particularly 360-degree VR videos, have gained attraction in medical training due to their immersive qualities. The primary objectives of the study were to produce a high quality 360-degree virtual reality (VR) video capturing NR simulation and to determine if it could be an acceptable adjunct to teach NR. The secondary objective was to determine which aspects of NR could benefit from the incorporation of such a video in training. This was an exploratory development study. The first part consisted of producing the video using a GoPro action camera, Adobe Premiere Pro, and Unity Editor. In the second part participants were recruited, based on level of experience, to watch the video and answer questionnaires to determine acceptability (user experience and cognitive load) and aspects of NR which could benefit from the video. The video was successfully developed. Forty-six participants showed a strong general appreciation. User experience revealed high means (> 6) in the positive subscales and low means (< 4) for immersion side effect, with no difference between groups. Cognitive load was higher than anticipated. Participants indicated that this video could be effective for teaching crisis resource management principles, human and environment interactions, and procedural skills. The 360-degree VR video could be a potential new simulation adjunct for NR. Future studies are needed to evaluate learning outcomes of such videos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial ability is an important skill for art students, and its learning difficulty lies in the students' need to form abstract three-dimensional thinking and spatial perception. Common digital learning media (DLM) consume many cognitive resources and result in a limited spatial ability for students to learn. Previous studies have shown that virtual reality (VR) technology has unique advantages in improving spatial ability and training design thinking. This study uses VR technology to design an immersive learning environment (ILE) and discusses the differences between students' learning performance and cognitive load in DLM mode based on slides and ILE mode based on VR technology. Twenty-eight first-year university students participated in the experiment, divided into control and experimental groups based on their entrance grades and gender. The student's learning performance and cognitive load were obtained through academic ability tests and questionnaires. The experimental results show that the main effect of the learning environment is significant. Students in ILE have lower cognitive load and higher learning performance, and gender does not significantly influence cognitive load and academic performance. However, DLM increases students' cognitive load, and the cognitive load of females is higher than that of males. The results of this study provide a reference for future spatial ability learning and the impact of cognitive load on learning performance while also supporting efforts towards sustainable development by promoting innovative educational approaches aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remotely operating vehicles utilize the benefits of vehicle automation when fully automated driving is not yet possible. A human operator ensures safety and availability from afar and supports the vehicle automation when its capabilities are exceeded. The remote operator, conceptualized as remote assistant, fulfills the legal requirements in Germany as a Technical Supervisor to operate highly automated vehicles at Society of Automotive Engineers 4. To integrate the remote operator into the automated driving system, a novel user-centered human–machine interface (HMI) for a remote assistant's workplace was developed and initially evaluated. The insights gained in this process were incorporated into the design of a workplace prototype for remote assistance. This prototype was tested in the study reported here by 34 participants meeting the professional background criteria for the role of Technical Supervisor according to the German law. Typical scenarios that may occur in highly automated driving and require remote assistance were created in a simulation environment. Even under elevated cognitive load induced by simultaneously engaging in a secondary task, participants were able to obtain sufficient situation awareness and quickly resolve the scenarios. The HMI also yielded favorable usability and acceptance ratings. The results of this study inform the iterative workplace development and further research on the remote assistance of highly automated vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies on the impact of cognitive load on time preference has led to conflicting results. However, these studies either failed to consider response randomness while analyzing behavioral data or involved a defective control level for a clear conclusion regarding the impacts of cognitive load. With two experiments using an adaptive approach to generating appropriate individual-specific stimuli and an additional, preregistered partial replication study, the current research provided consistent evidence that imposing cognitive load with a 2-back auditory memory task would produce simultaneously more patient and more random intertemporal choices. The finding of changed time preference was at odds with the dual-process account thereof but provided clear support for the role of reduced time sensitivity in intertemporal choices under cognitive load. Results of relevant model comparison did not support an account built upon more usage of heuristic strategies under cognitive load, either. Future research could examine boundary conditions for the dual-process and time-sensitivity accounts of time preference such as task features and individual characteristics that moderate the impact of cognitive load on time preference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-regulated learning depends on task difficulty and on learners’ resources and cognitive load, as described by an inverted U-shaped relationship in Seufert’s (2018) model: for easy tasks, resources are high and load is low, so there is no need to regulate, whereas for difficult tasks, load is too high and resources are too low to regulate. Only at moderate task difficulty do learners regulate, as resources and load are in equilibrium. The purpose of this study is to validate this model, i.e., the inverted U-shaped relationship between task difficulty and self-regulatory activities, as well as learner resources and cognitive load as mediators. In the within-subject study, 67 participants reported their cognitive and metacognitive strategy use for four exams of varying difficulty. For each exam task difficulty, cognitive load, and available resources (such as prior knowledge, interest, etc.) were assessed. Multilevel analysis revealed an inverted U-shaped relationship between task difficulty and the use of cognitive strategies. For metacognitive strategies, only a linear relationship was found. Increasing cognitive load mediated these relationship patterns. For learner resources we found a competitive mediation, indicating that further mediators could be relevant. In future investigations a broader range of task difficulty should be examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing students' scientific literacy is the most important educational goal and challenge of the 21st century. Many studies have confirmed that flipped learning has significantly impacted learning science. Researchers indicate that the lack of an appropriate learning guidance strategy in the pre-class stage for flipped learning will influence students' understanding of learning content and affect in-class learning activities. In order to tackle this problem, the present study proposed a flipped learning approach based on identification, summarization, self-reflective questioning, and application (ISSA), further exploring the influences on students' scientific literacy, communication tendency, problem-solving tendency, learning motivation, and cognitive load. In addition, the study used a true experimental design to assess the effectiveness of the proposed learning method, and 58 university students were recruited to participate in a natural science course. The experimental group (N = 29) adopted the proposed learning approach, while the control group adopted the conventional flipped learning approach. The results showed that the experimental group had higher scientific literacy, communication tendency, problem-solving tendency, and extrinsic motivation than the control group. The interviews showed that the ISSA flipped learning method could improve students' understanding of the learning content. In particular, the process of peer interaction promoted their self-reflection and scientific literacy skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As computational thinking becomes increasingly essential, the challenge of designing effective teaching approaches to foster students' abilities in this area persists, especially for higher order thinking skills. This study addresses this challenge by proposing and implementing a peer assessment-based Scrum project (PA-SP) learning approach in university computer programming learning. The approach involves dividing 98 third-year college students into an experimental group, which employs the PA-SP approach, and a control group, which uses the conventional Scrum project (C-SP) approach. The study investigates the impact of the PA-SP approach on students' programming projects, learning motivation, project collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and cognitive load. The results demonstrate that the PA-SP approach significantly enhances learning achievement and motivation while also improving collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. By providing practical insights into effective teaching strategies to promote students' computational thinking, this research has significant implications for improving programming education in universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aims to explore whether students' learning outcomes in the virtual museum (VM) 's Life and Science course are influenced by the type of knowledge and the different levels of interaction within the museum. The study was conducted using an eye-movement experimental method, based on cognitive load theory, knowledge visualisation and connectionist theory, to construct a virtual museum interaction hierarchy index to identify high and low levels of interaction in the experimental material. A randomised two-factor experiment was organised to obtain eye-movement related indicators and to analyse statistical data in conjunction with retention test scores and transfer test scores, taking into account the influence of the perceived difficulty of the learning material and the level of mental effort of the students on the experiment. This study will provide effective suggestions for museum learning design and resource development, ultimately offer insights in exploring the most suitable learning rules and learning material selection for VM learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]