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Brain-computer interfaces have so far focused largely on enabling the control of a single effector, for example a single computer cursor or robotic arm. Restoring multi-effector motion could unlock greater functionality for people with paralysis (e.g., bimanual movement). However, it may prove challenging to decode the simultaneous motion of multiple effectors, as we recently found that a compositional neural code links movements across all limbs and that neural tuning changes nonlinearly during dual-effector motion. Here, we demonstrate the feasibility of high-quality bimanual control of two cursors via neural network (NN) decoders. Through simulations, we show that NNs leverage a neural 'laterality' dimension to distinguish between left and right-hand movements as neural tuning to both hands become increasingly correlated. In training recurrent neural networks (RNNs) for two-cursor control, we developed a method that alters the temporal structure of the training data by dilating/compressing it in time and re-ordering it, which we show helps RNNs successfully generalize to the online setting. With this method, we demonstrate that a person with paralysis can control two computer cursors simultaneously. Our results suggest that neural network decoders may be advantageous for multi-effector decoding, provided they are designed to transfer to the online setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The management of ventriculitis remains controversial, with no single management strategy that can provide a good outcome. There are few articles describing the brainwashing technique, and most for neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage. This technical note is important because it describes a practical way to perform brainwashing in case of ventriculitis, and it is more feasible compared to endoscopic lavage in developing countries. Method: We describe in a stepwise fashion the surgical technique of ventricular lavage. Conclusion: Ventricular lavage is a neglected technique that can help to improve ventricular infection and hemorrhage prognosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As China's global footprint expands and Sino-American competition intensifies, it is apparent that one of the most important arenas for competition between Western Liberal norms and Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) authoritarian norms is going to come in competing technologies (Western/Korean/Taiwanese 5G/chips vs Huawei 5G/chips) and competing cyber-norms (Western cyber-libertarianism vs Chinese cyber-sovereignty). Inside China, China's technologies and its cyber-sovereign norms converge.Outside of China, while China champions the norm of cyber-sovereignty, Huawei itself may pose the greatest challenge to sovereign states' cyber-sovereignty where Huawei controls or otherwise participates significantly as a provider for telecommunications networks, given its relationship to the Chinese state. Is China sincere in advocating cyber-sovereignty as an international norm, or is this just something it is concerned about inside China?Are the laws of China and the technologies and practices of its own Huawei antithetical to China's own stated norms of cyber-sovereignty? Is cyber-sovereignty simply a stop-gap measure adopted by an insecure regime to justify draconian censorship and thought control at home while it seeks to use its growing presence in 5G telecommunications to expand its surveillance of foreign powers/actors worldwide? Finally, in keeping with the theme of this special issue, does digital orientalism explain the growing tension between China and some of the Western/Liberal powers as it regards competition in 5G? Is the US/West needlessly securitizing Huawei and its 5G, or is there something there worth securitizing? Clarity about these issues and the implications of the answers arrived at are important for nations around the world as China expands its technological reach via Huawei and other national champions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group-specific changes in the coherence of EEG activity were observed in children aged 17–43 months (mean age 31 months) who differently evaluated prosocial and antisocial actions performed by puppet characters (groups with high and low values of the moral evaluation index (MEI)). In higher-MEI children, observation of a prosocial action facilitated intrahemispheric interactions in the α-frequency range. In the lower-MEI group, changes in α-rhythm coherence were multidirectional. In the higher-IME group, a situation of decision making on how to distribute a reward between two characters who demonstrated either prosocial or antisocial behavior increased the α-activity coherence between the frontal, central, parietal, and occipital regions in the right hemisphere. In the lower-MEI children, the coherence decreased. No significant modulation of the EEG coherence was observed in the θ-frequency range. As for β activity, significant modulations were found only in children with low MEIs. The findings are discussed in the context of the functionality of brain control systems and the role of intrahemispheric cortical interconnections in the organization of moral behavior. The specifics of θ-, α-, and β-frequency coherence are of importance for understanding the mechanisms whereby moral evaluation develops in young children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sodium appetite is a motivational state involving homeostatic behavior, seeking the ingest of salty substances after sodium loss. There is a temporal dissociation between sodium depletion (SD) and the appearance of sodium appetite. However, the responsible mechanisms for this delay remain poorly elucidated. In the present study, we measured the temporal changes at two and 24 h after SD in the gene expression of key elements within excitatory, inhibitory, and sensory areas implicated in the signaling pathways involved in the onset of sodium appetite. In SD rats, we observed that the expression of critical components within the brain control circuit of sodium appetite, including Angiotensin-type-1 receptor (Agtr1a), Oxytocin-(OXT-NP)-neurophysin-I, and serotonergic-(5HT)-type-2c receptor (Htr2c) were modulated by SD, regardless of time. However, we observed reduced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) at the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and increased oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) mRNA expression at the anteroventral of the third ventricle area (AV3V), at two hours after SD, when sodium appetite is inapparent. At twenty-four hours after SD, when sodium appetite is released, we observed a reduction in the mRNA expression of the transient receptor potential channel 1gene (Trpv1) and Oxtr in the AV3V and the dorsal raphe nucleus, respectively. The results indicate that SD exerts a coordinated timing effect, promoting the appearance of sodium appetite through changes in MAPK activity and lower Trpv1 channel and Oxtr expression that trigger sodium consumption to reestablish the hydroelectrolytic homeostasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To perform a systematic review of the current level of evidence on post-operative management following brain metastasectomy (namely: adjuvant stereotactic radiosurgery, whole brain radiotherapy or observation), and to propose a GRADE-based dedicated recommendation to inform Radiation Oncologists' clinical practice. Methods: A panel of expert Radiation Oncologists from the Italian Association of Radiotherapy and Clinical Oncology had defined the search question per the PICO methodology. Electronic databases were independently screened; the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses was adopted. The individual and pooled hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CI), as well as the pooled risk ratio (RR) were calculated using a fixed- or random-effects model. Results: Eight full-texts were retrieved: six retrospective studies and two randomized clinical trials. Outcomes of benefit and damage were analyzed for SRS + observation (PICO A) and SRS + WBRT. SRS allowed for increased rates of local control when compared to both observation and WBRT, while evidence was less conclusive for distant brain control, leptomeningeal disease control and overall survival. In the SRS, the incidence of severe radionecrosis was higher as compared to WBRT, despite neurocognitive deterioration rates were lower. Overall, SRS seems to favorably compare with observation and whole brain RT, despite the level of evidence for the recommendation was low and very low, respectively. Conclusion: Despite low level of evidence, the panel concluded that the risk/benefit ratio probably favors adjuvant SRS as compared to the observation and whole brain RT as adjuvant treatments following brain metastasectomy (5 votes/5 participants, 100% attendance). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyber-physical production systems (CPPS) are mechatronic systems monitored and controlled by software brains and digital information. Despite its fast development along with the advancement of Industry 4.0 paradigms, an adaptive monitoring system remains challenging when considering integration with traditional manufacturing factories. In this paper, a failure predictive tool is developed and implemented. The predictive mechanism, underpinned by a hybrid model of the dynamic principal component analysis and the gradient boosting decision trees, is capable of anticipating the production stop before one occurs. The proposed methodology is implemented and experimented on a repetitive milling process hosted in a real-world CPPS hub. The online testing results have shown the accuracy of the predicted production failures using the proposed predictive tool is as high as 73% measured by the AUC score. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rationale: Metacognitions, beliefs that monitor or control thoughts and coping, are considered to be important components for development and maintenance of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Objectives: This study prospectively investigated whether metacognitive beliefs can predict early treatment response after serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) initiation in patients with OCD. Methods: Drug-naïve or medication-free patients with OCD (N = 156) were assessed for various characteristics, including metacognitions. In total, 132 patients were followed for 4 weeks, and their clinical responses to pharmacological treatment were assessed using the Yale-Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS). Early treatment response was defined as a 20% or greater reduction from the baseline Y-BOCS score at 4 weeks. Logistic and linear regression analyses were performed to identify major determinants for the early treatment outcome. Results: Among participants with OCD, 53 patients (40.15%) were early responders. The logistic regression model revealed two significant predictors, age (beta = − 0.113, p < 0.001) and "positive beliefs about worry," which refers to metacognitive beliefs concerning the benefits of engaging in worry (beta = − 0.067, p = 0.001), for identifying early responders. Moreover, in the linear regression model, lower "positive beliefs about worry" was also shown as a significant predictor for the degree of better early improvement (beta = − 0.566, p = 0.001). Conclusions: These results suggest that lower metacognition of "positive beliefs about worry" predicts improvement of obsessive–compulsive symptoms seen early on in the SRI treatment, and that pathological metacognitive belief would lead to delayed response to SRI treatment in OCD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neural substrates, including brain areas, differential gene expression and neuroendocrine basis, of migration are known. However, very little is known about structural changes in the brain that underlie the development and cessation of migration in long-distance avian migrants. Towards this, we investigated neuromorphological changes in the higher-order associative areas in male redheaded bunting (Emberiza bruniceps), which is a Palaearctic–Indian night migrant with wintering grounds in India. Photosensitive birds (8L:16D; SD) were exposed to stimulatory long days (16L:8D; LD), with controls retained on non-stimulatory short days. LD birds depicted shifts to, and sustained night-time activity as recorded by actograms. LD birds demonstrated increased body mass, fat deposition and testicular volume in keeping with the migratory phenotype. When LD birds had exhibited 10.0 ± 2.4 cycles of Zugunruhe (intense nighttime activity in captives, akin to night migratory flight in the wild), bird brains were fixed by transcardial perfusion, and changes in the neuronal morphometry of pallial, sub-pallial and hypothalamic brain regions studied using rapid Golgi technique with modifications, as used and validated in our laboratory. There were significant differences in both area and perimeter of soma in the visual hyperpallium apicale implicated in migratory orientation and the neuroendocrine control region for timing of migration, the mediobasal hypothalamus. We attribute these neuromorphometric changes in the soma area and perimeter to the photostimulated changes associated with the development of migration and reproductive phenotypes in redheaded buntings. It is suggested that changes in the neuronal plasticity in brain control regions parallel photoperiod-induced physiological responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes eventual death through respiratory failure unless mechanical ventilation is provided. Brain–machine interfaces (BMIs) may provide brain control supports for communication and motor function. We investigated the interests and expectations of patients with ALS concerning BMIs based on a large-scale anonymous questionnaire survey supported by the Japan Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Association. Methods: We surveyed 1918 patients with ALS regarding their present status, tracheostomy use, interest in BMIs, and their level of expectation for communication (conversation, emergency alarm, internet, and writing letters) and movement support (postural change, controlling the bed, controlling household appliances, robotic arms, and wheel chairs). Findings: Seven hundred and eighty participants responded. Fifty-eight percent of the participants underwent tracheostomy. Approximately, 80% of the patients experienced stress or trouble during communication. For all nine supports, > 60% participants expressed expectations regarding BMIs. More than 98% of participants who underwent tracheostomy expected support with conversation and emergency alarms. Participants who did not undergo tracheostomy exhibited significantly greater expectations than participants with tracheostomy did regarding all five movement supports. Seventy-seven percent of participants were interested in BMIs. Participants aged < 60 years had greater interest in both BMIs. Interpretation: This is the first large-scale survey to reveal the present status of patients with ALS and probe their interests and expectations regarding BMIs. Communication and emergency alarms should be supported by BMIs initially. BMIs should provide wide-ranging and high-performance support that can easily be used by severely disabled elderly patients with ALS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mathematical properties of high-dimensional (HD) spaces show remarkable agreement with behaviors controlled by the brain. Computing with HD vectors, referred to as "hypervectors," is a brain-inspired alternative to computing with numbers. HD computing is characterized by generality, scalability, robustness, and fast learning, making it a prime candidate for utilization in application domains such as brain–computer interfaces. We describe the use of HD computing to classify electroencephalography (EEG) error-related potentials for noninvasive brain–computer interfaces. Our algorithm naturally encodes neural activity recorded from 64 EEG electrodes to a single temporal–spatial hypervector without requiring any electrode selection process. This hypervector represents the event of interest, can be analyzed to identify the most discriminative electrodes, and is used for recognition of the subject's intentions. Using the full set of training trials, HD computing achieves on average 5% higher single-trial classification accuracy compared to a conventional machine learning method on this task (74.5% vs. 69.5%) and offers further advantages: (1) Our algorithm learns fast: using only 34% of training trials it achieves an average accuracy of 70.5%, surpassing the conventional method. (2) Conventional method requires prior domain expert knowledge, or a separate process, to carefully select a subset of electrodes for a subsequent preprocessor and classifier, whereas our algorithm blindly uses all 64 electrodes, tolerates noises in data, and the resulting hypervector is intrinsically clustered into HD space; in addition, most preprocessing of the electrode signal can be eliminated while maintaining an average accuracy of 71.7%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we employed a visuo-motor imagery task of alertness as a mental training to examine temporal processing of motor responses within healthy young adults. Participants were divided into two groups (group 1; n = 20 who performed the mental training before the real physical task and a control group who performed the physical task without mental training). We vary the time interval between the imperative stimulus and the preceding one (fore-period) in which temporal preparation and arousal increase briefly. Our behavioural results provide clear evidence that mental training reinforces both temporal preparation and arousal, by shortening reaction time (RT), especially for the shortest fore-periods (FP) within exogenous "FP 250 ms" (p = 0.008) and endogenous alertness "FP 650 ms" (p = 0.001). We investigated how the brain controls such small temporal changes. We focus our neural hypothesis on three brain regions: anterior insula, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex and three putative circuits: one top-down (from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to anterior cingulate cortex) and two bottom-up (from anterior insula to dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex). In fMRI, effective connectivity is strengthened during exogenous alertness between anterior insula and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (p = 0.001), between anterior insula and cingulate cortex (p = 0.01), and during endogenous alertness between dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex (p = 0.05). We suggest that attentional reinforcement induced by an intensive and short session of mental training induces a temporal deployment of attention and allow optimizing the time pressure by maintaining a high state of arousal and ameliorating temporal preparation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to determine the expression profiles of GABAA, GABAB, and GAT1 using RT-PCR and the immunoreactivity of GAT1 via immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence assays in CDV-infected brain tissue of dogs. For this purpose, dogs with CDV and dogs without CDV were selected. The mRNA transcript levels of GABAA, GABAB, and GAT1 were significantly downregulated in brain tissue in the CDV-infected group as compared with that in non-CDV-infected brain tissue in the control group (p < 0.01, p < 0.001). In addition, the immunoreactivity of GAT1 in CDV-infected brain tissue was significantly lower than in the uninfected group (p < 0.05). We conclude that one of the main causes of myoclonus in CDV infections may be the blockage of postsynaptic inhibition in neurons or a lack of metabolism of GABA. In addition, a GABA neurotransmission imbalance could play a role in demyelination in CDV infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Prion disease is a form of neurodegenerative disease caused by the misfolding and aggregation of cellular prion protein (PrPC). The neurotoxicity of the misfolded form of prion protein, PrPSc still remains understudied. Here we try to investigate this issue using a metabolomics approach. Objectives: The intention was to identify and quantify the small-in-size and water-soluble metabolites extracted from mice brains infected with the Rocky Mountain Laboratory isolate of mouse-adapted scrapie prions (RML) and track changes in these metabolites during disease evolution. Methods: A total of 73 mice were inoculated with RML prions or normal brain homogenate control; brains were harvested at 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 days post-inoculation (dpi). We devised a high-efficiency metabolite extraction method and used nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to identify and quantify 50 metabolites in the brain extracts. Data were analyzed using multivariate approach. Results: Brain metabolome profiles of RML infected animals displayed continuous changes throughout the course of disease. Among the analyzed metabolites, the most noteworthy changes included increases in myo-inositol and glutamine as well as decreases in 4-aminobutyrate, acetate, aspartate and taurine. Conclusion: We report a novel metabolite extraction method for lipid-rich tissue. As all the major metabolites are identifiable and quantifiable by magnetic resonance spectroscopy, this study suggests that tracking of neurochemical profiles could be effective in monitoring the progression of neurodegenerative diseases and useful for assessing the efficacy of candidate therapeutics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficiencies in social interactions and communication, combined with restricted and repetitive behavioral issues. Objectives: As little is known about the etiopathophysiology of ASD and early diagnosis is relatively subjective, we aim to employ a targeted, fully quantitative metabolomics approach to biochemically profile post-mortem human brain with the overall goal of identifying metabolic pathways that may have been perturbed as a result of the disease while uncovering potential central diagnostic biomarkers. Methods: Using a combination of 1H NMR and DI/LC–MS/MS we quantitatively profiled the metabolome of the posterolateral cerebellum from post-mortem human brain harvested from people who suffered with ASD (n = 11) and compared them with age-matched controls (n = 10). Results: We accurately identified and quantified 203 metabolites in post-mortem brain extracts and performed a metabolite set enrichment analyses identifying 3 metabolic pathways as significantly perturbed (p < 0.05). These include Pyrimidine, Ubiquinone and Vitamin K metabolism. Further, using a variety of machine-based learning algorithms, we identified a panel of central biomarkers (9-hexadecenoylcarnitine (C16:1) and the phosphatidylcholine PC ae C36:1) capable of discriminating between ASD and controls with an AUC = 0.855 with a sensitivity and specificity equal to 0.80 and 0.818, respectively. Conclusion: For the first time, we report the use of a multi-platform metabolomics approach to biochemically profile brain from people with ASD and report several metabolic pathways which are perturbed in the diseased brain of ASD sufferers. Further, we identified a panel of biomarkers capable of distinguishing ASD from control brains. We believe that these central biomarkers may be useful for diagnosing ASD in more accessible biomatrices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dysfunctional beliefs are the central element in cognitive-behavioral conceptualizations of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). The purpose of this study was to further elucidate the etiological role of preexisting dysfunctional beliefs in the occurrence of unwanted intrusive thoughts and neutralizing behaviors after a critical event by examining their predictive value and specificity in a prospective study with undergraduate students. The dysfunctional belief domains importance/control of thoughts (ICT), responsibility/threat (RT), and perfectionism/certainty (PC) were assessed at baseline 8 weeks prior to the critical event "exam situation" in N = 169 students. Exam-related unwanted intrusive thoughts and neutralizing behaviors, anxiety, and depression were assessed during the week immediately before the exam. Complete data for both baseline and follow-up were available for 79 participants (46%). After controlling for baseline obsessive–compulsive symptoms, anxiety, and depression, ICT but not RT or PC prospectively predicted exam-related intrusive thoughts and neutralizing behaviors, ICT also prospectively predicted depressive symptoms but not anxiety, and RT and PC both prospectively predicted anxiety but not depressive symptoms. Findings are partially consistent with cognitive models of OCD. They support the idea that ICT is a cognitive vulnerability factor for unwanted intrusive thoughts and neutralizing behaviors during a stressful event. Its predictive power was small and not specific to unwanted intrusive thoughts and neutralizing behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory of mind (ToM), the ability to understand that other agents have different beliefs, desires, and knowledge than oneself, has been extensively researched. Theory of mind tasks involve participants dealing with interference between their self-perspective and another agent's perspective, and this interference has been related to executive function, particularly to inhibitory control. This study assessed whether there are individual differences in self–other interference, and whether these effects are due to individual differences in executive function. A total of 142 participants completed two ToM (the director task and a Level 1 visual perspective-taking task), which both involve self–other interference, and a battery of inhibitory control tasks. The relationships between the tasks were examined using path analysis. Results showed that the self–other interference effects of the two ToM tasks were dissociable, with individual differences in performance on the ToM tasks being unrelated and performance in each predicted by different inhibitory control tasks. We suggest that self–other differences are part of the nature of ToM tasks, but self–other interference is not a unitary construct. Instead, self–other differences result in interference effects in various ways and at different stages of processing, and these effects may not be a major limiting step for adults' performance on typical ToM tasks. Further work is needed to assess other factors that may limit adults' ToM performance and hence explain individual differences in social ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To investigate whether clinical condition, imaging session, and locations affect repeatability of amide proton transfer-weighted (APTw) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the brain.Materials and Methods: Three APTw MRI data sets were acquired, involving two intrasession scans and one intersession scan for 19 healthy, 15 glioma, and 12 acute stroke adult participants (mean age 53.8, 54.6, and 68.5, respectively) on a 3T MR scanner. The mean APTw signals from five locations in healthy brain (supratentorial and infratentorial locations) and from entire tumor and stroke lesions (supratentorial location) were calculated. The within-subject coefficient of variation (wCV) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were calculated for each clinical conditions, image sessions, and anatomic locations. Differences in APTw signals between sessions were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance.Results: The ICC and wCV were 0.96 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.91-0.99) and 16.1 (12.6-21.3) in glioma, 0.93 (0.82-0.98) and 15.0 (11.4-20.6) in stroke, and 0.84 (0.72-0.91) and 34.0 (28.7-41.0) in healthy brain. There were no significant differences in APTw signal between three sessions, irrespective of disease condition and location. The ICC and wCV were 0.85 (0.68-0.94) and 27.4 (21.8-35.6) in supratentorial, and 0.44 (- 0.18 to 0.76) and 32.7 (25.9 to 42.9) in infratentorial locations. There were significant differences in APTw signal between supra- (mean, 0.49%; 95% CI, 0.38-0.61) and infratentorial locations (1.09%, 0.98-1.20; p < 0.001).Conclusion: The repeatability of APTw signal was excellent in supratentorial locations, while it was poor in infratentorial locations due to severe B0 inhomogeneity and susceptibility which affects MTR asymmetry.Key Points: • In supratentorial locations, APTw MRI showed excellent intrasession and intersession repeatability in brains of healthy controls and patients with glioma, as well as in stroke-affected regions. • APTw MRI showed excellent repeatability in supratentorial locations, but poor repeatability in infratentorial locations. • Considering poor repeatability in the infratentorial locations, the use of APTw MRI in longitudinal assessment in infratentorial locations is not indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language comprehension during reading requires fine-grained management of saccadic eye movements. A critical question, therefore, is how the brain controls eye movements in reading. Neural correlates of simple eye movements have been found in multiple cortical regions, but little is known about how this network operates in reading. To investigate this question in the present study, participants were presented with normal text, pseudo-word text, and consonant string text in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner with eyetracking. Participants read naturally in the normal text condition and moved their eyes "as if they were reading" in the other conditions. Multi-voxel pattern analysis was used to analyze the fMRI signal in the oculomotor network. We found that activation patterns in a subset of network regions differentiated between stimulus types. These results suggest that the oculomotor network reflects more than simple saccade generation and are consistent with the hypothesis that specific network areas interface with cognitive systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The P2X7 receptor, an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-gated purinoreceptor, has emerged as one of the key players in neuroinflammatory processes. Therefore, developing a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for imaging of P2X7 receptors in vivo presents a promising approach to diagnose, monitor, and study neuroinflammation in a variety of brain disorders. To fulfill the goal of developing a P2X7 PET ligand as a biomarker of neuroinflammation, [18F]JNJ-64413739 has been recently disclosed.Procedures: We evaluated [18F]JNJ-64413739 in a rat model of neuroinflammation induced by an intracerebral injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In vivo brain uptake was determined by PET imaging. Upregulation of neuroinflammatory biomarkers was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Distribution of the tracer in the brain was determined by ex vivo autoradiography (ARG). The specificity of [18F]JNJ-64413739 was confirmed by performing blocking experiments with the P2X7 antagonist JNJ-54175446.Results: Brain regions of rats injected with LPS had a significantly increased uptake (34 % ± 3 % s.e.m., p = 0.036, t test, standardized uptake value measured over the entire scanning period) of [18F]JNJ-64413739 relative to the corresponding brain regions of control animals injected with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The uptake in the contralateral regions and cerebellum was not significantly different between the groups of animals. The increase in uptake of [18F]JNJ-64413739 at the LPS-injected site observed by PET imaging was concordant with ex vivo ARG, upregulation of neuroinflammatory biomarkers, and elevated P2X7 expression levels.Conclusions: While further work is needed to study [18F]JNJ-64413739 in other types of neuroinflammation, the current results favorably characterize [18F]JNJ-64413739 as a potential PET tracer of central neuroinflammation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The perception of a scene involves grasping the global space of the scene, usually called the spatial layout, as well as the objects in the scene and the relations between them. The main brain areas involved in scene perception, the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and retrosplenial cortex (RSC), are supposed to mostly support the processing of spatial layout. Here we manipulated the objects and their relations either by arranging objects within rooms in a common way or by scattering them randomly. The rooms were then varied for spatial layout by keeping or removing the walls of the room, a typical layout manipulation. We then combined a visual search paradigm, where participants actively search for an object within the room, with multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA). Both left and right PPA were sensitive to the layout properties, but the right PPA was also sensitive to the object relations even when the information about objects and their relations is used in the cross-categorization procedure on novel stimuli. The left and right RSC were sensitive to both spatial layout and object relations, but could only use the information about object relations for cross-categorization to novel stimuli. These effects were restricted to the PPA and RSC, as other control brain areas did not display the same pattern of results. Our results underline the importance of employing paradigms that require participants to explicitly retrieve domain-specific processes and indicate that objects and their relations are processed in the scene areas to a larger extent than previously assumed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a brain computer interface system for patient monitoring to detect and correct seizure. About 4–7% of people are suffering from seizure and there are only less medical attention available. The objective of the work described in this paper is to detect and cure seizure automatically without physician intervention. The therapeutic device is a modeled chip using Field Programmable Gate Array Logic and SoC in which the size of the instrument is small. The EEG signals of the brain are recorded using scalp electrodes and converted to digital data. The EEG signal is preprocessed using quadrature spline wavelet transform. FPGA implementation of quadrature spline wavelet transform filter was done with Baugh Wooley and array multiplier. From the results it is found that the power and logic elements are improved when Baugh Wooley multiplier is used. But when delay is compared array multiplier has better performance. The preprocessed data is feature extracted using double stage pattern search method where the seizure event is detected. Once the seizure is detected, the seizure control block is activated. It controls the seizure in few seconds. For seizure detection and correction, adaptive methods and hardware simulators are used. The performance and efficiency is compared for various devices using Quartus in FPGA cyclone II and III. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is a significant public health problem. Congenital CMV infection is a leading infectious cause of long-term neurodevelopmental sequelae, including mental retardation and sensorineural hearing loss. Immune protection against mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is primarily mediated by NK cells and CD8+ T cells, while CD4+ T cells are not needed for control of MCMV in majority of organs in immunocompetent adult mice. Here, we set out to determine the role of CD4+ T cells upon MCMV infection of newborn mice. We provide evidence that CD4+ T cells are essential for clearance of MCMV infection in brain of neonatal mice and for prevention of recurrence of latent MCMV. In addition, we provide evidence that CD4+ T cells are required for induction and maintenance of tissue-resident memory CD8+ T cells in the brain of mice perinatally infected with MCMV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay examines the reception of Ivan Pavlov's work on conditioned reflexes in early to mid-twentieth century Britain. Recent work on the political interpretation of biology has shown that the nineteenth-century strategy of "making socialists" was undermined by August Weismann's attacks on the inheritance of acquired characters. I argue that Pavlov's research reinvigorated socialist hopes of transforming society and the people in it. I highlight the work of Pavlov's interpreters, notably the scientific journalist J. G. Crowther, the biologist Lancelot Hogben, and the science writer H. G. Wells, who made Pavlov's work accessible to a British audience and embraced the socialist implications of his research – especially the idea that people could be persuaded to become socialists through science writing for a nonspecialist audience and through use of a simplified language such as Basic English. They saw, in the followers of National Socialism, how Pavlovian conditioning could create a national movement, and believed that this could be used for their own more democratic form of socialism. In the final part of the essay, I suggest that this broad socio-cultural movement to reshape humanity proved controversial, especially in the post-war period and in light of Soviet use of brainwashing. The likes of Aldous Huxley and F. A. Hayek feared that conditioning could only lead to totalitarianism, while the historian E. P. Thompson put forward a socialist humanism that left room for human agency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Brain metastases from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are rare, but their incidence is increasing because of developments in recent therapeutic advances. The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of brain metastases from HCC, to evaluate the predictive factors, and to assess the efficacy of gamma knife surgery (GKS).Method: A retrospective study was performed on patients with brain metastases from HCC who were treated at Tokyo Gamma Unit Center from 2005 to 2014.Results: Nineteen patients were identified. The median age at diagnosis of brain metastases was 67.0 years. Fifteen patients were male and four patients were female. Six patients were infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV). Two patients were infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Eleven patients were not infected with HBV or HCV. The median interval from the diagnosis of HCC to brain metastases was 32.0 months. The median number of brain metastases was two. The median Karnofsky performance score at first GKS was 70. The median survival time following brain metastases was 21.0 weeks. Six-month and 1-year survival rates were 41.2 and 0%, respectively. One month after GKS, no tumor showed progressive disease. The HBV infection (positive vs. negative) was significantly associated with survival according to univariate analysis (p = 0.002).Conclusions: The patients having brain metastases from HCC had poor prognosis and low performance state. Therefore, GKS is an acceptable option for controlling brain metastases from HCC because GKS is noninvasive remedy and local control is reasonable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior work has revealed that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with altered (a) attentional performance and (b) resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) in brain networks linked to attention. Here, we sought to characterize and link these behavioral and brain-based alterations in the context of Posner and Peterson's tripartite model of attention. Male military veterans with PTSD ( N = 49; all deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan) and healthy age-and-gender-matched community controls ( N = 26) completed the Attention Network Task. A subset of these individuals (36 PTSD and 21 controls) also underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to assess rsFC. The behavioral measures revealed that the PTSD group was impaired at disengaging spatial attention, relative to the control group. FMRI measures further revealed that, relative to the control group, the PTSD group exhibited greater rsFC between the salience network and (a) the default mode network, (b) the dorsal attention network, and (c) the ventral attention network. Moreover, problems with disengaging spatial attention increased the rsFC between the networks above in the control group, but not in the PTSD group. The present findings link PTSD to both altered orienting of spatial attention and altered relationships between spatial orienting and functional connectivity involving the salience network. Interventions that target orienting and disengaging spatial attention may be a new avenue for PTSD research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive-behavioral models of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) propose that erroneous beliefs about the importance and need to control thoughts lead individuals with OCD to overuse maladaptive thought control strategies such as worry and self-punishment. These strategies are thought to backfire, leading to obsessional symptoms. Whereas previous studies have examined predictors of the use of thought control strategies, none have investigated these strategies as mediators in the prediction of OCD symptom severity. An additional gap in the literature is the lack of attention to OCD symptom dimensions. The present study, therefore, extended existing work by examining thought control strategies as mediators of the relationship between obsessive beliefs and OCD symptom dimensions in a treatment-seeking sample of 102 adults with OCD. In line with our hypotheses, the use of punishment (but not worry) as a thought control tactic mediated the relationship between dysfunctional beliefs about the importance/control of thoughts and unacceptable obsessions. These findings are discussed in terms of the conceptualization and treatment of OCD. Future research should investigate the extent to which these various thought control strategies may be helpful versus harmful using idiographic measures of thought control and employing experimental designs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review, we examine the importance of having a body as essential for the brain to transfer information about the outside world to generate appropriate motor responses. We discuss the context-dependent conditioning of the motor control neural circuits and its dependence on the completion of feedback loops, which is in close agreement with the insights of Hebb and colleagues, who have stressed that for learning to occur the body must be intact and able to interact with the outside world. Finally, we apply information theory to data from published studies to evaluate the robustness of the neuronal signals obtained by bypassing the body (as used for brain-machine interfaces) versus via the body to move in the world. We show that recording from a group of neurons that bypasses the body exhibits a vastly degraded level of transfer of information as compared to that of an entire brain using the body to engage in the normal execution of behaviour. We conclude that body sensations provide more than just feedback for movements; they sustain the necessary transfer of information as animals explore their environment, thereby creating associations through learning. This work has implications for the development of brain-machine interfaces used to move external devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how the brain controls behaviour is undisputedly one of the grand goals of neuroscience research, and the pursuit of this goal has a long tradition in insect neuroscience. However, appropriate techniques were lacking for a long time. Recent advances in genetic and recording techniques now allow the participation of identified neurons in the execution of specific behaviours to be interrogated. By focusing on fly visual course control, I highlight what has been learned about the neuronal circuit modules that control visual guidance in Drosophila melanogaster through the use of these techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article's guiding question is about bullet biting: When should compatibilists about moral responsibility bite the bullet in responding to stories used in arguments for incompatibilism about moral responsibility? Featured stories are vignettes in which agents' systems of values are radically reversed by means of brainwashing and the story behind the zygote argument. The malady known as 'intuition deficit disorder' is also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of hypofractionated frameless stereotactic radiotherapy (HSRT) with whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT) for the treatment of 1-3 brain metastases. 38 patients with a total of 58 brain metastases were treated at Ghent University Hospital with WBRT (10 × 3 Gy) followed by HSRT (5 × 6 Gy). Patients with RPA class I ( n = 8) and II ( n = 30) were eligible for HSRT. Acute toxicity was scored with the RTOG toxicity criteria. Response rates were scored every 3 months using the McDonald criteria. Overall survival (OS), brain-specific survival, local and distant brain control were calculated using the Kaplan-Meier method. Patient (age, Karnofsky performance score, KPS, RPA class) and tumor characteristics (number of lesions, extracranial metastases, brain tumor volume, primary cancer status, histology) were tested in univariate and multivariate analysis. Survival at 6 and 12 months was 65 and 35 %, respectively. On univariate analysis KPS < 90, number of lesions, a histologic diagnosis of adenocarcinoma and uncontrolled primary cancer status were statistic significant predictors for poor OS. Four patients (11 %) developed a grade 3 toxicity. Rates of complete remission, partial remission, no change and progressive disease were 30, 40, 23 and 5 %, respectively. Median survival was 7.6 months. The actuarial brain-specific survival was 97 % at 6 months and 91 % at 1 year of follow-up. The 1-year actuarial local and distant brain control was 66 and 75 %, respectively. WBRT + HSRT is an effective treatment for patients with up to three brain metastases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Thought Control Questionnaire (TCQ, Wells and Davies in Behav Res Therapy, 32, pp 871-878, ) measures individual differences in thought suppression strategies. This study describes the development and psychometric properties of an adolescent version of the questionnaire. Pilot studies were conducted to make some of the items more accessible to young people while still retaining the meaning of the original items. The adolescent version of the questionnaire and measures of emotional disorder were then administered to 589 school pupils aged 13-17 years. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded mixed results with only partial support for a five factor solution. Subsequently exploratory factor analysis did suggest a five factor structure that was the same as the original TCQ with the only difference being two fewer items. The five factors were distraction, social control, worry, punishment and reappraisal. The TCQ-A showed good internal consistency and evidence of stability over time. Scores on the worry and punishment subscales were positively correlated with measures of emotional symptoms. These data provided initial support for the psychometric properties of the TCQ-A and extend findings suggesting worry and punishment strategies are associated with psychological vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strategies used to control unwanted thoughts during the evening have been shown to be significantly associated with insomnia, a common problem associated with numerous negative consequences. This study examined whether nighttime thought control strategies would predict insomnia severity among 460 college students (mean age = 18.8, 61 % female, and 72 % Caucasian) after accounting for well-established risk factors for the disorder such as anxiety, depression, sleep hygiene, and nighttime pain. The Insomnia Severity Index was used to measure insomnia severity and the Thought Control Questionnaire Insomnia-Revised was used to measure nighttime thought management strategies. Results from a hierarchical multiple linear regression showed that the strategy of cognitive distraction (attempts to withdraw from unwanted thoughts or think about more pleasant content) was negatively associated with insomnia severity and the strategy of aggressive suppression (the use of critical and punishing self thought) was positively associated with insomnia severity after accounting for other risk factors. These findings add to the growing literature highlighting arousing pre-sleep cognitions as a correlate of insomnia. These findings also add to emerging literature showing the ability to cognitively distract from the arousing thought as a correlate of good sleep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impulsive behaviors and intrusive thoughts are prominent in psychopathology. Two studies were conducted to explore their relationships. In Study 1, 250 participants completed the UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale and the Thought Control Ability Questionnaire (TCAQ). In Study 2 involving a sample of 97 female students, the relations between impulsivity and different types of thought control difficulties were examined. Both negative urgency and lack of perseverance were significantly related to the tendency to experience intrusive thoughts as measured by the TCAQ, the Penn State Worry Questionnaire, the obsessing subscale of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised, and an intrusion subscale of the White Bear Suppression Inventory. Regression analyses revealed that negative urgency and lack of perseverance independently contributed to worries and thought control difficulties and that negative urgency was the strongest predictor of all types of intrusions. On the basis of these findings, the authors discuss cognitive processes and content that may be related the different facets of impulsivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study 1 evaluated the psychometric properties of the English version of the Thought Control Ability Questionnaire (TCAQ; Luciano et al. 2005), an index of perceived control over intrusive cognitions. Confirmatory factor analysis in a sample of 720 University students revealed a clear uni-dimensional structure (after removal of items 5, 7, 8, 14, and 25) with high internal consistency ( α = .87, 95% CI = [.86, .88]) and test-retest reliability after a six month interval ( r = .68). Correlational analyses supported an inverse relationship with measures of depression, anxiety, maladaptive cognitive control strategies, and obsessive–compulsive symptomatology. Study 2 tested the ability of the TCAQ to predict successful cognitive control during an experimental suppression protocol. Results demonstrated that weak thought control ability was predictive of the frequency and associated levels of distress of a target thought while under instruction to suppress. Additionally, weak perceived thought control ability was predictive of increased efforts to suppress the target material. Collectively, results suggest that thought control ability is a measurable individual difference variable and that the TCAQ is a reliable index of perceived cognitive control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies indicate that suppression is a counterproductive mechanism of thought control. In the current paper we examined whether individuals can successfully suppress an intrusive thought confronting a reminder of it, a suppression technique employed on memory research. Thus, 76 undergraduates performed a thought suppression task with three monitoring intervals and were randomly allocated to a suppression-only, suppression confronting a reminder stimulus or monitor-only condition. Data analysis yielded an absence of paradoxical effects (rebound) on target thought frequency. However, the examination of the annoyance associated with the intrusions indicated that those individuals instructed to suppress without confronting the reminder maintained the same level of discomfort reported at baseline, whereas the other participants reduced the discomfort level, suggesting that the confrontation with a reminder is a recommendable strategy for emotion regulation. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the clinical and cognitive research on thought control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has linked obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) to maladaptive strategies of thought control, which in turn may elicit a paradoxical increase in the unwanted thought. One explanation for OCD patients’ use of maladaptive thought control strategies is that they tend to overestimate the importance of their thoughts, or perceive a greater need to control them. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between obsessive beliefs and use of maladaptive thought control strategies in a sample of 77 OCD patients and 35 anxious control patients. Patients completed the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire-44 (OBQ-44) and the Thought Control Questionnaire (TCQ), as well as measures of trait anxiety and depression. Across the entire sample and for OCD patients only, when controlling for depression and trait anxiety, the TCQ Punishment scale correlated significantly with the OBQ-44 Importance/Control of Thoughts scale. Regression analyses indicated that beliefs about the Importance/Control of Thoughts accounted for the relationship between OCD and the use of Punishment as a thought control strategy. In addition to providing additional construct validation for the OBQ-44, the present data add to a growing body of research suggesting that OCD patients, believing their intrusive thoughts to be particularly important and perceiving a need to control them, overuse maladaptive thought control strategies; these strategies tend to “backfire” and trigger additional intrusive thoughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a recent study, De Haart et al. (Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85:886–895, 2004) investigated the recovery of balance in stroke patients using traditional analyses of center-of-pressure (COP) trajectories to assess the effects of health status, rehabilitation, and task conditions like standing with eyes open or closed and standing while performing a cognitive dual task. To unravel the underlying control processes, we reanalyzed these data in terms of stochastic dynamics using more advanced analyses. Dimensionality, local stability, regularity, and scaling behavior of COP trajectories were determined and compared with shuffled and phase-randomized surrogate data. The presence of long-range correlations discarded the possibility that the COP trajectories were purely random. Compared to the healthy controls, the COP trajectories of the stroke patients were characterized by increased dimensionality and instability, but greater regularity in the frontal plane. These findings were taken to imply that the stroke patients actively (i.e., cognitively) coped with the stroke-induced impairment of posture, as reflected in the increased regularity and decreased local stability, by recruiting additional control processes (i.e., more degrees of freedom) and/or by tightening the present control structure while releasing non-essential degrees of freedom from postural control. In the course of rehabilitation, dimensionality stayed fairly constant, whereas local stability increased and regularity decreased. The progressively less regular COP trajectories were interpreted to indicate a reduction of cognitive involvement in postural control as recovery from stroke progressed. Consistent with this interpretation, the dual task condition resulted in less regular COP trajectories of greater dimensionality, reflecting a task-related decrease of active, cognitive contributions to postural control. In comparison with conventional posturography, our results show a clear surplus value of dynamical measures in studying postural control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Fine-tuning and coordinating neural activity is essential for an efficient brain. Athalye and colleagues (2018) provide important evidence that neural patterns can be streamlined by inducing dopamine transients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contemporary moral philosophy assumes an account of what it means to legitimately change one’s mind in ethics, and I wish to challenge this account by enlarging the category of the legitimate. I am just as eager to avoid illegitimate mind-changing brought on by deceit or brainwashing, but I claim that legitimacy should be defined in terms of transparency of method. A social reformer should not be embarrassed to admit that he acquired many beliefs about justice while reading Dickens. As such, appeals to the heart and the imagination are just as legitimate, within limits, as appeals to the mind; and showing can be as legitimate as telling. To demonstrate this, I consider the example of a vegetarian trying to ‘convert’ a carnivore. I then ask what it means when the carnivore claims to have been previously mistaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that is difficult to control; but methods of thought control among persons with GAD have not been previously investigated. Forty-two patients with GAD and 55 non-anxious controls (NACs) completed the Thought Control Questionnaire (TCQ; A. Wells&M. I. Davies, 1994). Patients with GAD reported significantly greater use of worry and punishment strategies, and less use of distraction and social control strategies, than NACs. Further, worry and punishment strategies were positively correlated with depressive symptoms and excessive worry, while distraction and social control strategies were negatively correlated with these measures of psychopathology. Higher life satisfaction was associated with greater use of distraction and social control strategies, and lesser use of worry and punishment strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide evidence that the human spinal cord is able to respond to external afferent input and to generate a sustained extension of the lower extremities when isolated from brain control. The present study demonstrates that sustained, nonpatterned electrical stimulation of the lumbosacral cord—applied at a frequency in the range of 5–15 Hz and a strength above the thresholds for twitches in the thigh and leg muscles—can initiate and retain lower-limb extension in paraplegic subjects with a long history of complete spinal cord injury. We hypothesize that the induced extension is due to tonic input applied by the epidural stimulation to primary sensory afferents. The induced volleys elicit muscle twitches (posterior root muscle-reflex responses) at short and constant latency times and coactivate the configuration of the lumbosacral interneuronal network, presumably via collaterals of the primary sensory neurons and their connectivity with this network. We speculate that the volleys induced externally to the lumbosacral network at a frequency of 5–15 Hz initiate and retain an “extension pattern generator” organization. Once established, this organization would recruit a larger population of motor units in the hip and ankle extensor muscles as compared to the flexors, resulting in an extension movement of the lower limbs. In the electromyograms of the lower-limb muscle groups, such activity is reflected as a characteristic spatiotemporal pattern of compound motor-unit potentials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analysis of Jean-Marie Abgrall's cultic brainwashing theory shows that the theory is essentially identical to the pseudoscientific theory that was developed first by the American CIA as a propaganda device to combat communism, and second as an ideological device for use by the American anti-cult movement to rationalize efforts at persecution and control of minority religious groups. The CIA theory has been evaluated scientifically in research in several contexts (i.e., communist coercive indoctrination of Western prisoners, the CIA's attempted development of brainwashing techniques, and with American new religions or “cults”). In each context, it has been shown to be ineffective in coercively changing worldviews. Because of this pattern of disconfirmation, testimony based on brainwashing theory has been opposed as unscientific by relevant professional academic organizations and repeatedly excluded from American legal trials. Consequently, neither legal decisions nor public policy with respect to minority religions should be based on Abgrall's appropriation of this pseudoscientific theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the way individual freedom is both curtailed and enhanced by society in the context of religious beliefs, practices and institutions. The public's belief in the capacity of religious movement to brainwash seems sufficiently assured for television programs, with evident approval around the world, to have shown documentaries in which members of the movements are being held against their stated wishes while attempts are made to deprogram them. There is, moreover, a small number of academics who have testified as expert witnesses in literally hundreds of cases that new religions brainwash, or exert total mind control, over their members. Research has shown that ex-members who have been deprogrammed are most likely to claim that they have been brainwashed, while ex-members with no contact with the anticult movement are most likely to insist that they were in their movement as a result of their own choice. Another argument that one frequently comes across is that people may choose to join a new religion, but once they are in it they no longer have any control over their lives. They have submitted themselves to a strict regime in which their every act is governed by non-negotiable rules.

The article discusses a research by M. Velliste and colleagues that demonstrates the use of brain-machine interfaces (BMI) technology by subjects to perform a practical behavirol act via brain control of the motion of a robotic arm in three-dimensional space. Using grids of fine electrodes implanted in the primary motor cortex of monkeys, the researchers trained the animals to generate patterns of brain activity to control an anthropomorphic robot that had a shoulder joint, an elbow joint and a claw-like gripper hand. They used standard operant conditioning methods, in which each successful reach, grasp and retrieval was reinforced by consumption of the food reward.