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This paper sets out some findings of a research project carried out in private unaided schools in low-income areas of Hyderabad, India. The part of the research project documented here was designed to examine the question: ‘Is the regulatory regime conducive to entrepreneurial action and market discovery’ with particular reference to the low-income schools in Hyderabad. This paper is narrowly focused, setting out the results of pattern matching empirical data with the Austrian economic concepts of entrepreneurship, rivalry, and market discovery. The research discovered that two regulatory regimes exist, one that is set out ‘on paper’ in the Education Acts and associated rules, and another that operates ‘in practice’. That is, there is a combination of regulations ‘on paper’ and regulations existing in an ‘extra-legal’ sector. Generally it was found that the regulations ‘in practice’ are consistent with market principles. Conversely the regulations set out ‘on paper’ are not conducive to entrepreneurial innovation and market discovery. Recommendations for potential policy initiatives include the possibility of legitimising the ‘extra-legal’ sector by introducing self-regulation possibly via self-evaluation systems for the private unaided schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The theory and practice of sustainability involves the understanding and management of the coupled relationship between the environment and humans. This relationship is very evident in respect to mining where the impacts of operations, both positive and negative, are environmental and socioeconomic in nature. In recent years, evaluating the sustainability of a mining operation has grown within the literature due to the impacts that mining has upon a local community. However, the literature has been often characterised by a variety of case study-specific approaches to define and evaluate the sustainability of mining operations. This is due to the fundamental problem of defining what is sustainability. The paper applies, based on our previous research, a mathematical model of sustainability to the environmental impact assessment (EIA) of a proposed bauxite mining project in the Andhra Pradesh province, India. The model's application to the impact assessment, which used the rapid impact assessment matrix, was undertaken for the purpose of determining the level and nature of sustainability (if appropriate) of the proposed project. The results indicated that the project was considered as unsustainable in its current form, based on an obtained E value of 0.249 and an H value of 0.500. The results suggested that the project would greatly benefit from an environmental management plan in order to mitigate the extensive negative environmental and social impacts of the project. The results also indicated the potential of the model in assisting in the resolution of questions of the sustainability of local projects, which are assessed through quantitative-based EIA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global changes are already having an impact on South Indian farmers. Climate change is affecting the agricultural sector since it is dependent on climatic conditions and water resource availability. The impacts tend to be greater in semi-arid hard rock areas with few water resources. Furthermore, South India area is experiencing a profound agrarian crisis, which is linked, among others, to debt and credit problems. The study reported in this paper aims to develop a methodology to compare and rank farmers according to their ability to adapt to global change. The definition of adaptive capacity is based on a livelihood assets approach. Indicators are evaluated through individual surveys among farmers, then, weighted using the analytic hierarchy process and aggregated via compromise programming. The result is a standardized score measuring the distance of each farmer from an ideal adaptive capacity. Farmers are ranked according to this distance, which allows a comparison of their relative ability to adapt. At the basin scale, it shows that the geographic position of farmers is a significant factor in adaptation performance. The proximity of an administrative center contributes to an increase of their adaptive capacity. Small farming areas limit the adaptive capacities of marginal and small farmers while the largest farmers are constrained by economic factors such as large loans. These study findings offer interesting indications on the variability of farmers' weaknesses and are bringing a better understanding of the causes of poor performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accumulation of fluoride (F) in groundwater is a common phenomenon in India and worldwide. Its location can be identified through a direct hydrochemical analysis, which was carried out in Kurmapalli watershed (located 60 km SE of Hyderabad city), Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India affected by F contamination. The results of the hydrochemical analysis showed that F varied from 0.71 to 19.01 mg/l and its concentration exceeded the permissible limit (i.e., 1.5 mg/l) in 78% of the total 32 samples analyzed. The highest F value (19.01 mg/l) was found near Madnapur village, which is located in the central part of the watershed. Resistivity and induced polarization (IP) surveys were also carried out to reveal the zones where elevated F-contaminated groundwater exists. The objective of this paper was to highlight the utility of resistivity and IP surveys, using hydrochemical constituents as constraint, for the successful delineation of such contaminated/polluted groundwater zones in the granite area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing concern over the potential accumulation of trace element concentration in groundwater of coastal aquifer owing seawater encroachment in the last several decades. A total of 29 groundwater samples collected from Pesarlanka Island, Krishna delta, Andhra Pradesh, India were analyzed for 13 trace elements (B, V, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Sr, Cd, Ba, and Pb) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The results reveal that B, Fe, Ni, As, Sr, and Pb vary from 11.22 to 710.2, 1.25 to 684.6, 0.02 to 37.33, 27.8 to 282.3, 164.1 to 7,009, and 1.97 to 164.4 μg/l, respectively. Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, V, and Zn are almost within permissible limits for drinking water, but As, Fe, Mn, Pb, B, and Sr are above the permissible limit. The toxic element Pb is 1.64 times more than the maximum permissible limits of drinking water. The minimum value of As is also 2.78 times more, whereas the maximum is 28.2 times the permissible limit. The spatial distributions of alkaline earths (Sr, Ba), transition metals (V, Co, Ni, Fe), metallic elements (Cu, Pb), and (As) were found in considerable variation in the entire Island. Good cross-correlations were found between As, B, Co, and Sr with total dissolved solids and among other trace elements such as B, As, Co, and Sr. The variability observed within the groundwater samples is closely connected to the sea spray input; hence, it is primarily a consequence of geographical and meteorological factors, such as distance from the ocean and time of year. The trace element levels, in particular those of heavy metals, are very low, suggesting an origin from natural sources rather than from anthropogenic contamination. A few trace elements (Sr and B) are found as sensitive parameters responding to changes in fresh to saline groundwater environment. The highly elevated trace elements in this area which may be attributed to marine sediments or death and decay of plants are presented in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to report and compare the immunization coverage of various vaccines among tribal and rural children in a distinct socio-economic environment in India. The study was conducted in two tribal and two rural developmental blocks of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh, India, by employing both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. Data collected included the immunisation coverage and the associated socio-demographic factors. The majority of mothers was aware of vaccination of children, and usually the primary heath centres and their health workers were the source of vaccination. Vaccination cards were received by 79.2% of tribal and 71.3% of rural children. Some of the socio-demographic characters of mothers, such as habitat, caste and occupation, were associated with the reception of a vaccination card. The coverage of various vaccines was higher among the tribal than among the rural population. Of the eligible children aged above 9 months, 63.3% of tribal children and only 14.5% of rural children were fully vaccinated [three doses of diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus (DPT), four doses of oral polio vaccine, Bacille Calmette Guerin (BCG) and measles vaccine]. The coverage of vaccination against measles and vitamin-A supplementation were very low among rural children (19.6% and 15.2%, respectively) when compared to tribal children (69.2% and 64.2%, respectively). The qualitative data indicated that the community was not satisfied with regard to vaccination services, particularly in the rural area. The coverage of various vaccines was moderate in tribal areas and poor in rural areas. The sole dependence on and demand for public health services was responsible for relatively better coverage of immunisation in tribal areas compared to rural areas where the private sector plays a major role. The existing strategies of health-care delivery including delivery of vaccination services need to be examined and improved. Improvements in physical access, infrastructure, quality of care and increased use of mass media and interpersonal communication are indispensable for improvement in the provision of services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High levels of fluoride (beyond 1.5 ppm) in ground water as source of drinking water are common in many parts of Andhra Pradesh, India, causing fluorosis. The study carried out in endemic Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, has indicated that the fluoride-rich ground water present in the wells located down stream and close to the surface water bodies is getting diluted by the low-fluoride surface water. Encouraged by this result, check dams were constructed upstream of the identified marginally high fluoride bearing ground water zones in Anantapur District to reduce fluoride levels as an alternate solution for safe drinking water.In this paper, an attempt is made to study the utility and effect of these check dams in dilution of fluoride concentration in drinking water and its resultant impact on the health aspects of certain villagers of Anantapur District through the analysis of their blood serum and urine. Ground water samples from three fluoride-affected villages, blood and urine of males and females from the same villages were collected and analyzed for fluoride using ion selective electrode method. The results indicated that the fluoride levels in blood serum and urine of males in the age group of 5-11 years are found to be the highest. The concentration of fluoride in ground water is directly proportional to the concentration of fluoride in blood serum and urine. The concentration of fluoride in ground water with depth of the aquifer is a function of lithology, amount and duration of rainfall, rate of infiltration, level of ground water exploitation in the area etc. The construction of check dams upstream of the identified marginally high fluoride waters will not only cause additional recharge of ground water but also reduces the fluoride concentration eventually improving the health of the villagers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates the groundwater quality for domestic and irrigation purposes in a coastal aquifer in the West Godavari delta region based on geochemical evaluation, integrated multivariate statistical analysis and entropy water quality index (EWQI). The study area is underlain by the Quaternary sediments with unconsolidated to semi consolidated sand, silt and clay formation. In the study, the significant hydrochemical facies of groundwater observed were Na-Mg-Cl-HCO3−, Na-Cl-HCO3− and Mg-Na-Cl-HCO3−. The results revealed that the area occupies high salinity groundwater controlled mainly by evaporation and also by rock weathering-solubilization to some extent. The concentrations of major cations and anions decreased in the order: Na+ > K+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ = Cl− > HCO3− > SO42− > NO3−. The chemical constituents of the samples TA (85%), TDS (100%), TH (83%), Mg2+ (91%), Cl−(81%) and SO42 (12%) exceeded the limits, making them unfit for drinking. Based on EWQI (53.3–143.4), nearly 70% of groundwater samples were of poor to very poor quality for drinking, which required treatment, and the remaining 30% of samples were unsuitable for domestic purposes. Some samples of the irrigation suitability parameters (Na%, SAR, RSC, PI, CAI, KR and CCR) exhibit moderate to good categories, which can be used for irrigation with proper management. The multivariate statistical analysis was performed to understand the relationships among the chemical constituents present in groundwater. TDS is highly correlated with EC, TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3− and Cl−. Principal component analysis (PCA) applied to the datasets showed that the first three PCs accounted for 65% of total variance cumulatively 94.5% for a total of 7 PCs. The PCA results indicate that the variation of groundwater quality is possibly attributed to various anthropogenic and geogenic factors, rock–water interactions and ion exchange processes in groundwater. The uncontrolled drawl of subsurface waters and aqua forming at an advanced rate when compared with recharge has led to this coastal aquifer being in a critical stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green lacewing, Pseudomallada astur (Banks) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) is a potential predator of the invasive rugose spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) infesting coconut palms. A meridic diet for its mass production was standardized. Highest fecundity (393 eggs), larval hatch (324.60 larvae), pupation (279.20 pupae), male longevity (23.25 days) and female longevity (59.62 days) of P. astur were recorded when reared on adult diet comprising honey, protein X, glucose, coconut pollen and yeast. In the laboratory, each P.astur larva fed on 705 and 996 eggs of Corcyra cephalonica and A. rugioperculatus in a period of 13.23 and 21.19 days, respectively. About 7.26 lakh and 17.76 lakh P.astur eggs were distributed to farmers during 2019 and 2020, respectively in East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India to combat A. rugioperculatus. Field evaluation indicated significantly low population of A. rugioperculatus (19.96 nymphs) on coconut palms inoculated with P. astur eggs than un-released control palms (158.5 nymphs) on 28th day after inoculation and thus established successful predatory potential on rugose spiralling whitefly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive geophysical and petrological study was carried out at Giddalur area in Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh, which is geologically a highly deformed area and is difficult to delineate the aquifer zone(s). The task was to find out the exact rock type in which aquifer is concealed as well as to delineate the aquifer zone, which can yield sufficient quantity of water. The resistivity models derived from geophysical dataset were interpreted in terms of hydrogeology and the results revealed substantial resistivity contrast of the geological formations within the study area. We have delineated two major groundwater potential zones based on this study. These zones were tapped at different depths in diverse rock types. Drilled hand specimens (rock cuttings) were not adequate, so these specimens were petrographically studied to reveal the exact contact zones of the rock type. On integration of the geophysical and the petrographic results, it was illustrated that two aquifer zones were struck at a depth of 92 and 122 m between shale-phyllite and phyllite-quartzite, respectively. These findings were correlated, which matched with the lithology of the drilled borehole. This integrated approach will be helpful in strategy for groundwater assessment as well as prospecting groundwater resources in different geological terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluoride (F) content varies from 0.60 to 1.80 mg/L in the coastal region between Chirala and Ongole of Andhra Pradesh, India. It exceeds the threshold limit of 1.20 mg/L in 20 % of the total groundwater samples. The aim of the present study is to assess the controlling factors of F content. The study area experiences a dry climate and is underlain by Charnockite Group of rocks over which the river and coastal alluvium occur. The results of the study identify the four factors that control the high F content. First one is related to alkalinity, leading to active dissolution and leaching of F-bearing minerals, which supports the positive correlation of F with pH and HCO . A longer water residence time in the clays is the second factor, which activates not only solubility and dissolution of F-bearing minerals, but also anion exchange between F and OH. Third factor is a result of higher Na due to impact of saline water, ion exchange between Na and Ca, and precipitation of CaCO. This reduces the Ca content, causing dissolution of CaF to maintain the chemical equilibria, which is supported by positive correlation between Na and F. The influence of anthropogenic activities is the last factor, which acts as an additional source of F. Thus, the shallow groundwater shows higher content of F and the hydrogeochemical facies also support this hypothesis. The study suggests the remedial measures to reduce the F content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The functional factors responsible for fluoride (F)-bearing groundwater used for drinking as well as for cooking in the area of Gummanampadu Sub-basin, Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India are discussed. The study area is a part of an Archean Gneissic Complex, consisting of banded-biotite-hornblende-gneisses, over which the Proterozoic Cumbhum quartzites, shales, phyllites, and dolomitic limestones occur. The chemistry of groundwater is dominated by carbonates (HCO and CO) at a higher pH. This results in a higher total alkalinity over total hardness, causing an excess alkalinity. Sodium ion is dominated among the cations (Ca, Mg, and K). The concentration of F (2.1-3.7 mg/L) is higher than that of desirable national limit (1.2 mg/L) prescribed for drinking purpose. A significant positive correlation exists between F and pH as well as that between F and HCO + CO. This indicates that the alkaline condition is the prime conducive factor for dissolving F-bearing minerals more effectively leading to a higher concentration of F in the groundwater. Furthermore, a positive chloro-alkaline index reflects the ion exchange, and an oversaturation with respect to CaCO indicates the evaporation. In addition, a negative relation between the well depth and F shows the effect of solubility and/or leaching of salts in different depth levels. These factors regulate the concentration of F in the groundwater. On the other hand, a positive correlation of F with SO as well as with K shows the human land use activities (namely, use of chemical fertilizers, disposal of domestic wastes, etc.), which add F to the groundwater. A significant number of the residents of the study area suffer from the health disorders related to fluorosis, which is a consequence of higher concentration of F in the drinking water. Thus, this study emphasizes the need for supply of safe drinking water, nutritional diet, rainwater-harvesting structures, and public education to realize 'health for all' motto of World Health Organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societies control crime through a variety of both formal and informal methods, and the balance between these methods varies widely by culture. This exploratory study surveyed a convenience sample of 434 students attending a university in Andhra Pradesh, India, in order to examine their social control views. Although there was strong support for both forms of social control, informal control mechanisms (family, neighbors/neighborhood, and peers) were more likely to be ranked higher in importance than formal control mechanisms (courts, police, and correctional facilities). Ordinary ordinal regression and ordinary least squares regression results indicated that views on shaming and group punishment were related to the views of formal and informal control. Further research is needed to examine the forces that shape the formal and informal crime control views of Indian citizens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2007 the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India began rolling out Aarogyasri health insurance to reduce catastrophic health expenditures in households 'below the poverty line'. We exploit variation in program roll-out over time and districts to evaluate the impacts of the scheme using difference-in-differences. Our results suggest that within the first nine months of implementation Phase I of Aarogyasri significantly reduced out-of-pocket inpatient expenditures and, to a lesser extent, outpatient expenditures. These results are robust to checks using quantile regression and matching methods. No clear effects on catastrophic health expenditures or medical impoverishment are seen. Aarogyasri is not benefiting scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households as much as the rest of the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Narava basin in Visakhapatnam district situated on the east coast is a productive agricultural area, and is also one of the fastest growing urban areas in India. The agricultural and urban-industrialization activities have a lot of impact on this coastal aquifer water quality. The hydrochemistry of the groundwater was analyzed in the basin area with reference to drinking and agricultural purposes. The area is underlain by Precambrian rocks like khondalites, charnockites and migmatites. The water samples were collected from shallow wells for the year 2008. Physical and chemical parameters of groundwater such as pH, total alkalinity (TA), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO, Cl, SO, NO, F were determined. The analytical results revealed that the most of the groundwater found to be in polluted category. Geographical information system (GIS) was utilized to generate different spatial distribution maps of various chemical constituents in the study area. The analytical data were used to compute certain parameters such as salinity hazard, percent sodium (Na%), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), permeability index (PI), Kelley's ratio (KR) and corrosivity ratio (CR) to determine the quality of water for agricultural purposes. The abundance of the major ions in the basin area was found to be in the following sequence: Na > Ca > Mg > K:Cl > HCO > SO > NO > F. According to Gibbs' diagram most of the samples fall under rock dominance. As per Wilcox and USSL classification most of the groundwater samples are suitable for irrigation except few samples which are unsuitable due to the presence of high salinity and high sodium hazard. From the obtained data, it can be concluded that the water quality profile was good and useful for normal irrigation agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plausible forms of fluoride (F) responsible for the persistence of fluoride toxicity in ground water of a granitic terrain of semi-arid region, which is the main source of drinking water, have been studied. The study area in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh, India, is one of the chronic regions with excess fluoride in groundwater and the region is under transformation into aridity due to poor rainfall and over-exploitation of groundwater. Geochemical analysis of soil, groundwater, and rock samples of the study area revealed the presence of other toxic elements also in addition to fluoride which need to be addressed in drinking water sector in near future. Soil fluoride leaching experiments demonstrated the probable mode of mobilization of F into the groundwater through natural recharge process during monsoon. Analysis of saturation indices indicates that the fluorite solubility alone is not attributable to the high fluoride content in groundwater. The groundwater flow controls fluoride mobilization in the study area as it is evidenced through fluoride concentration and electrical conductivity increase from catchment to downstream region. Creation of lesser fluoride groundwater sources through rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge of groundwater in catchment areas is suggested as a long-term sustainable safe drinking water strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, groundwater assessment units are classified as overexploited areas, critical areas, semi-critical, or safe areas based on the stage of groundwater development and long-term water level trends. Intuitively, in the safe units, wells are expected to function and have good yields. Besides, in the safe units, new wells are expected to be successful. Conversely, the expectation of a successful well or wells with good yields is much lesser in the overexploited units. However, when these expectations are not met in the field, doubts are raised about the quality of assessment and its usefulness, and there is outright distrust on the agencies assessing groundwater resource by the common man as well as on the planners, administrators, and the politicians. Therefore, there is a need to present the results in a way that does not create confusion. One of the methods is to combine the assessment results with aquifer characters using geographic information system (GIS); when this is done, a whole set of newer classes emerge, which can be mapped. These classes are termed as groundwater typologies in this study. Each typology has some characteristics or traits in common, which include basic aquifer character as well as the stage of groundwater development. Thus, a class may be safe, but if the aquifer is poor, then it is separated from a class that is safe and where the aquifer is good and so on. In Andhra Pradesh, which is taken as the case study for this purpose, eight main typologies emerged, and two of these main typologies were further divided into four subtypologies each. This new way of understanding the pattern of groundwater abstraction (using GIS) has a better visual impact. Groundwater typologies are found to be much more rational and useful in developing management strategies, rather than simple listing as overexploited areas, critical areas, semi-critical areas, and safe areas as is commonly done. The typologies so delineated indicate on the map (or table) that balanced usable groundwater is in between 5 and 6 bcm/a as against the estimated balance of 20.5 bcm/a, and it is largely in poor hard rock type of aquifers, which occupy about a third of the area of the state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater is the prime source in the area of Varaha River Basin, Andhra Pradesh, India. Groundwater samples collected during pre- and post-monsoon were analyzed for major ion chemistry to understand the operating mechanism of geochemical processes for variation of groundwater quality. Low ionic concentration is observed in the groundwater occurring at topographic-highs and towards the river compared to the rest of the area. This is caused by the influence of recharge water. Geochemistry of groundwater is observed to be mainly controlled by the rock-weathering, mineral dissolution, leaching, ion exchange and evaporation, and is subsequently modified by the anthropogenic and marine activities. Contribution of residual soluble salts below the depth of 5 m from the ground surface is high, while it is low beyond the depth of 5 m. Anthropogenic activities cause an accumulation of excess residual soluble salts in the former depth and the content of this soluble matter is reduced by the clay products beyond the latter depth. Seasonal ionic concentration of groundwater is greatly influenced by the recharge process with reference to topographical features, lithological characteristics and anthropogenic activities. Groundwater quality is classified as mixed and non-carbonate alkali groups due to a combined action of geogenic/anthropogenic and marine sources, respectively. The groundwater quality is above the adequacy level for both drinking and irrigation, and appropriate management measures are recommended for sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater chemistry has been studied to examine the associated hydrogeochemical processes operating for the development of salinity in the groundwater in parts of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The study area is underlain by charnockites and granitic gneisses associated with schists of the Precambrian Eastern Ghats. Groundwater is the main resource for irrigation besides drinking. Chemical parameters, pH, EC, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, $$ {\text{CO}}^{{{\text{2}} - }}_{{\text{3}}} $$ , $$ {\text{HCO}}^{ - }_{{\text{3}}} $$ , Cl−, $$ {\text{SO}}^{{{\text{2}} - }}_{{\text{4}}} $$ , $$ {\text{NO}}^{ - }_{{\text{3}}} $$ , F− and SiO2, are taken into account. Groundwater is of brackish type. Na+−Cl− facies dominates the groundwater. Examination of compositional relations and mineral saturation states shows that the ion exchange of Ca2+ for adsorbed Na+, evapotranspiration, dissolution of soil salts, dissolution of NaCl and CaSO4, and precipitation of CaCO3 are the dominant hydrogeochemical processes associated with the groundwater composition in the area. Evapotranspiration causes accumulation of salts in the soil/weathered zone. These salts reach the water table by leaching through infiltrating recharge water. A positive relation between depth to water table and TDS with season supports this inference. The effects of human activities, such as intensive and long-term irrigation, irrigation-return-flow, application of unlimited agricultural fertilizers and recycling of saline groundwater, act to further increase the salinity in the groundwater. Therefore, the groundwater quality increases towards the flow path, while the post-monsoon groundwater shows higher concentrations of TDS, Na+, Mg2+, Cl−, $$ {\text{SO}}^{{{\text{2}} - }}_{{\text{4}}} $$ , $$ {\text{NO}}^{ - }_{{\text{3}}} $$ , F− and SiO2 ions. The study could help to understand the hydrogeochemical characteristics of the aquifer system for taking effective management measures to mitigate the inferior groundwater quality for sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trace elements are essential for human health. However, excess concentrations of these elements cause health disorders. A study has been carried out in Visakhapatnam environs, Andhra Pradesh, India to ascertain the causes for the origin and distribution of iron content in the groundwaters. Fifty groundwater samples are collected and analyzed for iron. The content of iron ranges from 400 to 780 μg/l. A comparison of groundwater data with rock and soil chemistry suggests that the concentration of iron (400–530 μg/l) in the groundwaters is derived from the rocks and soils due to geogenic processes. This concentration is taken as a natural occurrence of iron in the groundwaters of the study area for assessing the causes for its next higher content (>530 μg/l). Relatively higher concentration of iron (540–550 μg/l) is observed at some well waters, where the wells are located nearby municipal wastewaters, while the very high concentration of iron (610–780 μg/l) is observed in the industrially polluted groundwater zones, indicating the impact of anthropogenic activities on the groundwater system. These activities mask the concentration of iron caused by geogenic origin. Hence, both the geogenic and anthropogenic activities degrade the groundwater quality. Drinking water standards indicate that the iron content in all the groundwater samples exceeds the permissible limit (300 μg/l) recommended for drinking purpose, causing the health disorders. Necessity of close monitoring of groundwater quality for assessing the impact of geogenic and anthropogenic sources with reference to land use/land cover activities is emphasized in the present study area to protect the groundwater resources from the pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complex depositional pattern of clay and sand in most of the areas controlled the vertical and lateral movement of nitrate in groundwater. The variation of nitrate concentration at different groundwater levels and the lateral distribution of nitrate in the groundwater at two sites indicated the filtration of nitrate by clayey formations. A rural agricultural district located in the Vamsadhara river basin, India was selected for studying the lateral and vertical distribution of nitrate in the groundwater and the association of nitrate with other chemical constituents. The nitrate concentrations in the groundwater are observed to vary between below detectable limit and 450 mg NO3/L. The sources for nitrate are mainly point sources (poultry farms, cattleshed and leakages from septic tanks) and non-point sources (nitrogenous fertilisers). The nitrate concentrations are increased after fertiliser applications. However, very high concentrations of nitrate are derived from animal wastes. Relatively better correlations between nitrate and potassium are observed ( R = 0.74 to 0.82). The better relationship between these two chemical constituents in the groundwater may be due to the release of potassium and nitrate from both point and non-point sources. The nitrate and potassium concentrations are high in the groundwater from clayey formations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives:To describe prevalence of malnutrition and their correlates of nutrient and traditional food consumption in rural Dalit mothers.Design:In a cross-sectional study, we used socio-cultural questionnaires, anthropometric measurements and clinical eye examinations during the rainy season in 2003. Food frequency questionnaires and 24-h recalls were conducted during both summer and rainy seasons.Setting:Dalit mothers with young children were recruited from 37 villages in the Medak District of rural Andhra Pradesh, India.Subjects:Dalit mothers (n=220) participated.Results:The prevalence of chronic energy-deficient (CED) mothers (body mass index <18.5 kg/m2) was 58%. Illiterate women and active women were more likely to have CED than those literate and non-active (relative risks (RR)=1.6 and 1.4, respectively, P0.05), but literacy and activity level were not significant in multivariable analyses including sanitation and number of children 5 years of age. Increasing levels of fat intake, as a percent of total energy, was significantly associated with lower risk of CED (RR of the lowest 25th percentile compared to those in the 75th percentile or above was 1.6, P0.05), findings that remained significant in multivariable analyses. Consumption of pulses (g/day) was also inversely related to CED in univariate and multivariable analyses. Carbohydrate intake, as a percent of total energy, was inversely related to percent energy from fat (r=−0.96, P0.01), and, although positively related to CED in univariate analyses, carbohydrate consumption was not significant in multivariable analyses. Mothers' age in years and income was positively related to vitamin A deficiency.Conclusions:These results confirm that CED and vitamin A malnutrition among Dalit women are predominant problems in this area. Increased consumption of local traditional Dalit food (particularly sorghum, pulses, vegetables and animal source food) should be incorporated as an important component of intervention strategies to improve nutritional status.Sponsorship:Supported by the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa and the Swiss Foundation for Nutrition Research, Zürich.European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2006) 60, 1277–1283. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602449; published online 24 May 2006 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores political meanings in the context of recent economic and political changes in a village in south India. Cultural constructions of political relations emerged in conversations between the author and village informants in Andhra Pradesh. Informants perceived decline in the power and authority of former village lords and talked about the establishment of authority in the new setting. In processes of democratization which had taken place, showing and receiving honor and respect continued as political and social preoccupations. However, deserving honor and respect has become less a statement about political superiority and domination and more about individual moral qualities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, the quantity and quality of water available for irrigation is variable from place to place. Assessment of water quality has been carried out to determine the sources of dissolved ions in groundwater. Quality of groundwater in a 398 km2 Peddavanka watershed of a semi-arid region of south India is evaluated for its suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. The middle Proterozoic Cuddapah Supergroup and Kurnool Group of rocks underlie most of the watershed. The main lithologic units consist chiefly of quartzite, limestone, and shale. Seventy-six water samples were collected from open-wells and bore-holes. Water samples were collected representative of the post-monsoon (winter) and pre-monsoon (summer). The quality assessment is made through the estimation of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, SO, CO, HCO, total hardness as CaCO3, TDS, EC, and pH. Based on these analyses, parameters like sodium adsorption ratio, % sodium, residual sodium carbonate, non-carbonate hardness, potential salinity, Kelley’s ratio, magnesium ratio, index of base exchange and permeability index were calculated. According to Gibbs‘ ratio samples in both seasons fall in the rock dominance field. The overall quality of waters in the study area in post-monsoon season is high for all constituents ruling out pollution from extraneous sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogeochemical investigations were carried out in the south-eastern part of the Ranga Reddy district, Hyderabad, India, to assess the quality of groundwater for its suitability for domestic and irrigation purposes. The area falls under a semi-arid type of climate and consists of granites and pegmatites of igneous origin of Archaean age. Forty-five representative groundwater samples were collected from bore wells to monitor the water chemistry of various ions, comprising Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+, K+, CO3-2, HCO3-, SO4-2, NO3-, Cl- and F-. The results showed that the concentrations of these ions are above the permissible limits for drinking and irrigation purposes. The pollution with respect to NO3-, Cl-, and F- is mainly attributed to the extensive use of fertilizers and large-scale discharge of municipal wastes into the open drainage system of the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fluoride level in groundwater is controlled by the distribution of Ca2+ and SO42-, ionic strength and the presence of complex ions in its composition. In the study area, situated in the Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh, India, the concentrations of fluoride in the groundwater vary from 0.7 to 4.80 mg/l and from 0.4 to 4.20 mg/l during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons respectively. From the correlation coefficient studies, it is observed that fluoride is inversely related with Ca2+ and positively related with HCO3-, whereas the correlation coefficient between fluoride and other ions is very poor during both seasons. The difference in F- concentrations between pre- and post-monsoon seasons could be because the ionic concentrations in the groundwater during the post-monsoon period were generally less than their counterparts during the pre-monsoon period, because of dilution by rainwater. By contrast, the fluoride concentration in many places was relatively high during the post-monsoon period. This indicates contamination of groundwater from surface pollutants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India has a huge stock of canal irrigation systems that suffer from poor maintenance and reduced performance. The root of the maintenance problems are structural and relate to perverse incentive structures and poor management. In 1997, the state of Andhra Pradesh initiated a bold experiment aimed at restructuring irrigation operation and maintenance (O&M) across the state. Under the strong leadership of the state's charismatic chief minister, a new irrigation law was passed and 10,000 water user associations (WUAs) created. WUAs received control over a portion of the maintenance budget and power to prioritize and supervise small-scale maintenance works in their areas. These steps changed radically the service relationships and governance mechanisms which control maintenance service provision. According to one evaluation, the changes resulted in a significant expansion in irrigated area, reduced flooding losses and an earlier cropping calendar as a result of improved drainage, and higher paddy yields. However, the reforms did not establish clear accountability linkages between WUAs and O&M engineers in the public irrigation agency and failed to specify measures to permanently reduce the size of the state's irrigation bureaucracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An integrated hydrogeological investigation was made to delineate the socioeconomic problems in the agro-based rural environment of the crystalline terrain of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The integrated investigation comprised geoelectrical (GE) surveys, remotely recorded data and pumping tests. The subsurface layer parameters obtained from the sounding interpretation are presented in the form of GE sections and a fence diagram. Characteristic resistivities of various layers were obtained by correlating the known lithology with the GE sounding data. Total transverse resistance (TTR) and total longitudinal conductance (TLC) were computed from the interpretation of the sounding data. The TTR map was compared with the depth of bedrock map and the values of TLC were correlated with the thickness of geoelectrical layers and water quality. Lineaments were mapped from the satellite imageries. Hydraulic properties were determined, using the standard pumping test analysis. Potentiality of aquifer zones was assessed, after comparing the known thickness of aquifer formations with the corresponding discharge (Q) values. The integrated study helps to evolve a criterion to classify the groundwater potential zones (GPZ) into low, medium and high, based on the thickness of the aquifer zone and its corresponding resistivity, TTR, TLC and Q. A management plan has been proposed for sustainable development of groundwater in the region to eliminate water scarcity and its related problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrialization and urbanization are the two main causes for the increasing contamination of heavy metals in soil. An environmental geochemical investigation was carried out in and around the Patancheru industrial development area of Andhra Pradesh to determine the extent of chemical pollution in the soil. The main objective of the study was to establish the spatial variability in heavy-metal enrichment and to assess the extent of contamination in the study area. The data reveal that soils in the area are significantly contaminated, showing two to three times higher levels of toxic elements than normal. Many heavy metals, such as Cr, V, Fe, As, Cd, Se, Ba, Zn, Sr, Mo and Cu, are present above the normal distribution in the soil. The heavy-metal loads of the soils in the study area are 240 mg/kg for Cr, 235 mg/kg for V, 1,350 mg/kg for Ba, 200 mg/kg for Cd, and 500 mg/kg for Cu. Most of the soils should be removed from agricultural production, and the area needs to be monitored regularly for heavy metal enrichment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In total, 123 groundwater samples were collected to evaluate the suitability for drinking purpose in a rural part of Andhra Pradesh, India. The groundwater is alkaline in nature and pH varying from 7.18 to 9.32 with a mean value of 8.36. The hydrogeochemical analysis reveals that the fluoride concentration varies from 0.4 to 5.8 mg/L with a mean of 1.98 mg/L. Higher fluoride concentration is found in west-central parts of Markapur region. The villagers have been exposed to the intake of high fluoride-bearing groundwater for the prolonged period and suffering from the deadly disease fluorosis. However, with respect to groundwater chemistry, the fluoride concentration is high in Na+–HCO3−-type groundwater and low in Ca2+–HCO3−-type groundwater in the Markapur region. Data plotted in Gibbs diagram show that all groundwater samples fall under rock weathering dominance group with a trend toward the evaporation dominance category. Therefore, rock–water interaction is the primary cause of elevated fluoride in the groundwater of the study region. Furthermore, a significant positive correlation exists between F− and pH, HCO3- as well as negative correlation exists between F- and Ca2+ and NO3−, which supports that the alkaline nature of water is the main cause for dissolving fluoride-bearing minerals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]