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This paper examines the effects of human capital on fundraising problems for necessity- and opportunity-based entrepreneurs by using a survey of 3974 new firms in Japan. The major findings of this paper are as follows. First, necessity-based entrepreneurs are more likely to have fundraising problems than opportunity-based entrepreneurs. Second, industry-specific experience contributes to solving fundraising problems for both necessity- and opportunity-based entrepreneurs. Third, necessity-based entrepreneurs with industry-specific experience are less likely to have fundraising problems than opportunity-based entrepreneurs without such experience. Plain English Summary: Do high levels of human capital help necessity-based entrepreneurs overcome their disadvantages in startup financing? In this study, we investigate whether necessity-based entrepreneurs with high levels of human capital are less likely to have fundraising problems than opportunity-based entrepreneurs without such human capital. Our results show that former entrepreneurs tend not to have fundraising problems than latter entrepreneurs. This implies that (1) high levels of human capital can be an insurance for potential necessity-based entrepreneurs when they are forced to start businesses and (2) potential opportunity-based entrepreneurs might have difficulty fundraising if they do not have high levels of human capital. Therefore, all potential entrepreneurs should recognize the importance of acquiring high levels of human capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women's groups in rural fishery areas were established in the mid-1950s. By 1959, they became integrated in local Fishery Cooperative Associations as parallel organizations. These Fisheries Cooperative Associations, established in 1948, represent all fishers in Japan, who are primarily men. The purpose of the women's groups was to provide well-being by improving the living conditions of families and communities. While men were busy building the production facilities and the cooperatives, women organized themselves to protect and improve the everyday life of families. From 1995 and the World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, some of these women groups ran economic entrepreneurial activities with the financial support of the State through the cooperatives. This new role of women's groups aims to improve the economic and social development and environment of families and communities facing depopulation problems who need to increase the number of young people. This paper examines the role of cooperative associations in rural, fishery communities and shows how these associations "handed over" the social responsibilities to the women groups who then developed their social skills and competences. Special emphasis is put on how the women groups changed their activity from social issues to environmental protection, promotion of fishery products, and to entrepreneurial activities. The paper also problematizes the difficulties the women met in order to get their contribution to the fisheries communities and industry recognized, as well as their status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines regional characteristics affecting the latent entrepreneurship in Japan, focusing on regional macroeconomic indicators, existing density of establishments and human capital, and business start-up assistance programs by local governments. We define two types of people having the latent entrepreneurship as follows (1) persons merely wishing to be a self-employed worker, and (2) persons preparing to be a self-employed worker out of the former definition. Total cash earnings and the unemployment rate, which are the macro economic indicators, had positive effects on latent entrepreneurship in Japan. Judging from the significance of their estimations, the latent entrepreneurship is explained by the “Push hypothesis”. If we examine the problem more closely, it is necessary for us to identify government assistance programs which make the latent entrepreneurs more self-employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper scrutinises organisational change in Japanese and UK universities which are engaged in entrepreneurial activities. The study focuses on recent changes in governance, management, leadership, and funding in these universities. The paper argues there are convergent trends between Japanese and UK universities in terms of increasing entrepreneurial activities, a review of institutional strategies, a review of the organisation, the application of market-oriented institutional policy, links with the industrial sector, the notion of a public financial crisis and changing external environment, strong leadership of the university President or Vice-Chancellor, and the notion of the accountability of the university to society as a whole. However, the application of particular institutional strategies, entrepreneurial culture, and the way in which an institution relates itself to the private sector significantly differs among institutions. The paper suggests that those differences are related to different institutional history and characteristics – including those between national and private universities in Japan, and old and new universities in the UK – as well as different government policies between Japan and the UK. The paper first proposes a theoretical model for the five types of entrepreneurial culture of the institutions. It then examines the model by using case studies: Nottingham Trent University (UK), University of Surrey (UK), University of Tokyo (Japan), and Waseda University (Japan). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to investigate the potential for entrepreneurship in Japan using the Employment Status Survey, which is the only government-administered survey that includes questions about the desire to become an entrepreneur. We find that there are still a number of potential entrepreneurs in Japan, despite a recent decline in the number of new firms being established. We also find that there is a large regional variation in the distribution of entrepreneurial potential, with clustering into a few regions and the level in Tokyo being exceptional. Further, using panel data on 47 prefectures from 1982 to 1997, we examine the determinants of entrepreneurial potential. The estimation results show that the price-cost margin, market size, market growth and the unemployment rate have positive effects on the potential for entrepreneurship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article estimated the production function of new Japanese firms using cross-sectional data from the "Survey on Business Startups in Japan" in 1998, and investigated whether the total factor productivity of new firms is affected by the human capital and gender of entrepreneurs. Empirical results show decreasing returns to scale of production, which verifies the assumption of production functions in many previous studies on entrepreneur ship. Further, it is shown that the entrepreneur' s age has a significantly negative effect on productivity, and the negative effect increases after 60 years of age.

This study investigated entrepreneurs' motivations to implement circular economy (CE) practices and the ways in which their approaches to CE practices differed by their sociocultural context. The research aimed to contrast the contemporary instrumental perspective on CE through an ecologically dominant logic. The empirical analysis focused on Finland and Japan, two countries with distinct sociocultural contexts but similar regulatory environments regarding the CE. The study analysed entrepreneurs' motivations towards the CE through self-determination theory that makes a distinction between different levels of internalization in motivations. The Finnish entrepreneurs were characterised by more frequent intertwined intrinsic/transcendent motivations and a vocal approach to CE. The Japanese entrepreneurs' motivations were more varied; some were intrinsically interested in the CE, while some were even unaware of the CE concept despite operating CE businesses. The Japanese entrepreneurs resorted to masking their CE businesses to better relate with the surrounding linear system. The study shows how the individualistic Finnish culture fostered progress on the CE, while the collectivistic Japanese culture emphasised the need for relatedness and caused stagnation in the CE in its society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the birth of the market for Japanese black tea, its decline, and its rebirth. Currently, the black tea consumed in Japan is mostly imported. But the production of Japanese black tea has gradually increased, and more than 200 tons was produced in 2016. We investigate the history of Japanese black tea, the use of manufacturing technology, and the components of tea and their effects on humans to influence quality. We found the main reasons for the revival and spread of Japanese black tea were production and manufacturing innovation. Fermentation was especially an important process because it determined tea quality. Manufacturing technology for fermentation was established by entrepreneurial farmers and transferred to other Japanese black tea farmers, resulting in the rapid market creation of the Japanese black tea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This collaborative research focused on assessing women's perceptions and participation regarding environmental protection and developing entrepreneurship opportunities through suitability mapping in the study areas of Japan and Bangladesh to achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The purpose of this study was to apply the most feasible and applicable site-specific methods from the experience in Japan to build women's capacity of entrepreneurship and ensuring environmental protection using geographical information system (GIS) in Bangladesh. A questionnaire-based survey and key informant interviews were conducted for the quantitative and qualitative assessment on sustainable agricultural practices and entrepreneurships of women living in villages in these two countries using a bottom–up approach. Sustainable agricultural practices relating to fertilizer and pesticides, deforestation, waste management and entrepreneurship capabilities of women were investigated in a model village, Nakagawa, located in the Tochigi prefecture in Japan. Information gathered from the Japanese women were used to encourage women's participation on similar indicators at Hujuri-para village of Rajshahi district in Bangladesh. The research emphasized the suitability mapping of entrepreneurial opportunities at the micro-level, which could bridge between an entrepreneur production hub and consumers for empowering rural women. Selected criteria were considered in the multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). The MCDA was incorporated with GIS for suitability assessment of the areas to initiate entrepreneurship hub for local women and stakeholders. The suitability map was developed and it was found that 33% of the areas of the Hujuri-para village in Bangladesh were most suitable for women entrepreneurs, whereas only 15% of Nakagawa village had the most suitable areas for extending entrepreneurship facilities. The Japanese experiences indicated the development of services and women's involvement in a model village which could be implemented in Bangladesh. The bottom–up approach of this study is recommended for policy planning to promote use of locally available resources for entrepreneurship development in these two countries that can be executed by the local government for sustainable agricultural development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is an attempt to investigate the implications of the ownership structure and control transfers in the Japanese corporate market, which are attributed mainly to the government's liberalization policies during 1990s. It appears that institutional shareholdings-either financial or non-financial corporations-are associated with poor performance, whereas the foreign and domestic private ownerships lead to an improvement in the performance of the firms. We observe that unwinding the cross-shareholding between banks and corporations and mutual transfers among non-financial institutions allows for efficiency gain. Furthermore, the ownership transfer to private and foreign individuals is consistently associated with high market value, which implies that individuals' transfers lead to an increase in efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article delineates how local actors accomplish the adaptation of a global structure and how the social relations in which actors are embedded affect their negotiation of new practices. Specifically, the article draws on interviews and archival research to examine legal and institutional change regarding academic entrepreneurship in Japanese bioscience. In the late 1990s, Japan began to imitate the United States' method of promoting academic entrepreneurship. New legislation regulating university-industry ties constrained and even prohibited university scientists' previous practices of informal collaboration with firms. This article shows how Japanese scientists reappropriated the new rules to continue working with firms in ways that would keep established relationships and work arrangements intact. Previously, Japanese scientists maintained informal, trust-based relationships with firms: scientists received 'donations' from firms and, in return, provided the 'favor' of intellectual property rights. After the introduction of formal rules, scientists tried to avoid breaching their gift-exchange-like relationships with collaborating firms by neglecting, partially following, or working around the new rules to keep giving favors to firms. By tracing the ways Japanese bio-scientists worked around the new system, I thus show how the social ties and practices that local actors are embedded in affect how they think about their work and their relationships: how previous practices and relationships 'pull' loosely-coupled practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is suggested that trade credit can be a substitute for bank loans for small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that have little access to external funding sources. Using unique cross-sectional survey data of Japanese SMEs, we conduct a deep investigation into the substitutability between bank loans and trade credit. This survey contains rich information on the suppliers of trade credit to SMEs, thus enabling the examination of the channel through which credit is provided from suppliers to customers. We find that SMEs with little access to bank credit depend more on large suppliers for trade credit. We also find that when a purchase is made from a large supplier, more credit is indeed provided in the form of trade credit. Furthermore, this channel of credit from large suppliers to SMEs is only observed for solvent customers, not for insolvent customers. Our findings suggest that trade credit plays an important role for entrepreneurial firms over the financial growth cycle. For young and small firms with little access to bank loans trade credit is an important funding source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the visible but often neglected outcomes of international migration in Asia is the emergence of immigrant-run businesses. Drawing on the experiences of Bangladeshi migrant entrepreneurs in Japan, this study examines how migrants reposition themselves from the rank of irregular workers to that of entrepreneurs under conditions of temporary migration. It highlights both the opportunity structure and the ingenuity of migrants in entrepreneurship. Unlike traditional migrant businesses, Bangladeshi migrant entrepreneurs engage in transactions in ethnic and non-ethnic products and are driven to adopt innovative strategies to make use of available technology in communication and transport and the globalization of markets. In doing so, they maintain multiple orientations in cultivating both the ethnic and local markets and developing a transnational and/or multinational dimension in growing their businesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the stereotypes held by 664 expatriate and 624 local managers in the subsidiaries of 136 Japanese firms operating in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Using 18 semantic differential items, the opinions of the managers were sought concerning three matters: their own nationality (their autostereotype); the nationality with whom they worked (their heterostereotype); and how the nationality with whom they worked would see them (their metastereotype). Principal components analysis revealed three major factors underlying the stereotypes, which were labelled 'managerial', 'entrepreneurial' and 'congenial'. These three factors are used to compare the various stereotypes of the groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]