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Background: Team ball sports such as soccer, basketball and volleyball have high participation levels worldwide. Musculoskeletal injuries are common in team ball sports and are associated with significant treatment costs, participation loss and long-term negative side effects. The results of recent randomized controlled trials provide support for the protective effect of injury-prevention exercise programmes (IPEPs) in team ball sports, but also highlight that achieving adequate compliance can be challenging. A key process in enhancing the ultimate impact of team ball sport IPEPs is identifying the specific implementation components that influence the adoption, execution and maintenance of these interventions. Despite this, no systematic review focussing on the specific implementation components of team ball sport IPEPs has been conducted. Objectives: Our objective was to assess the reporting of specific implementation components in the published literature on team ball sport IPEPs using the Reach Efficacy Adoption Implementation Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework. Methods: Six electronic databases were systematically searched from inception to December 2012 for papers reporting team ball sport IPEP trials. All eligible papers were independently evaluated by two raters before reaching consensus on the reporting of individual RE-AIM items, using the RE-AIM Model Dimension Items Checklist (RE-AIM MDIC). Results: A total of 60 papers, reporting 52 unique intervention trials, met eligibility criteria. Before consensus, the level of agreement across all trials between reviewers using the RE-AIM MDIC ranged from 81 to 91 %. The RE-AIM MDIC dimension of 'efficacy' had the highest level of reporting, with the five individual items in this dimension reported in 19-100 % of eligible trials (mean 58 %). The RE-AIM MDIC dimension 'maintenance-setting level' had the lowest level of reporting, with none of the four individual items in this dimension reported. For other dimensions, the mean level of reporting and range across items were 'reach' 34 % (12-60 %); 'adoption-setting level' 1 % (0-2 %); 'adoption-delivery agent level' 7 % (4-10 %); 'implementation' 36 % (13-63 %) and 'maintenance individual level' 1 % (0-4 %). Conclusion: Information on the specific implementation components of team ball sport IPEPs in published studies is scarce. In particular, major reporting gaps exist regarding the adoption and maintenance of these programmes. The RE-AIM MDIC can be successfully applied to reviewing literature in this context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In recent years, there has been a large expansion in literature pertaining to the game of Australian football (AF). Furthermore, there have been a number of rule changes that are likely to have changed the demands of the game. Based on these advances and changes, it seemed important to conduct a review assessing the scientific literature surrounding the sport.Objective: The review evaluates the match demands of AF, the qualities required for success, and the impact training and competition have on adaptation, injury and fatigue.Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and Scopus for AF literature was conducted; studies investigating match demands, physical qualities, training practices and injury were included. Weighted means and standard deviations were calculated for match demands and physical and anthropometric profiles across playing standards.Results: A total of 1830 articles were retrieved in the initial search, with 888 removed as duplicates, 626 removed for being non-relevant and a further 152 removed for being AF papers but not relevant to the review. As such, 164 AF papers were included in the review. Due to the intermittent high-intensity nature of match-play, players need a wide range of physical and technical qualities to excel, with speed, aerobic fitness, reactive agility and well-developed lean mass being central to success. Training for AF at the elite level is associated with high workloads, with players engaging in numerous training modalities; even altitude and heat training camps have been utilised by Australian Football League (AFL) teams to further augment fitness improvements. While high chronic workloads can be tolerated and are needed for improving physical qualities, careful planning and monitoring of internal and external workloads is required to minimise sharp spikes in load that are associated with injury.Conclusions: There is a complex interaction between numerous contextual factors that influence the match demands that are discussed in this review. Whilst players must have the physical capacities to cope with the intense physical demands of AF matches, the successful execution of technical skills during match-play is central to success. To develop these skills and attributes, specific and carefully planned and monitored training must be performed over a number of years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anterior knee pain is a chronic condition that presents frequently to sport medicine clinics, and can have a long-term impact on participation in physica activity. Conceivably, effective early management may prevent chronicit and facilitate physical activity. Although a variety of nonsurgical interven' tions have been advocated, previous systematic reviews have consistenty been unable to reach conclusions to support their use. Considering a decade has lapsed since publication of the most recent data in these reviews, it is timely to provide an updated synthesis of the literature to assist sports medicine practitioners in making informed, evidence-based decisions. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the evidence for non- surgical interventions for anterior knee pain. A comprehensive search strategy was used to search MEDLINE, EM- BASE, CINAHL® and Pre-CINAHL®, PEDro, PubMed, SportDiscus®, Web of Science®, BIOSIS Previews®, and the full Cochrane Library, while reference lists of included papers and previous systematic reviews were hand searched. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they were randomized clinical trials that used a measure of pain to evaluate at least one nonsurgical inter- vention over at least 2 weeks in participants with anterior knee pain. A modified version of the PEDro scale was used to rate methodological quality and risk of bias. Effect size calculation and meta-analyses were based on random effects models. Of 48 suitable studies, 27 studies with low-to-moderate risk of bias were included. There was minimal opportunity for meta-analysis because of heterogeneity of interventions, comparators and follow-up times. Meta- analysis of high-quality clinical trials supports the use of a 6-week multimodal physiotherapy programme (standardized mean difference [SMD] 1.08, 95% CI 0.73, 1.43), but does not support the addition of electromyography bio- feedback to an exercise programme in the short-term (4 weeks: SMD -0.21, 95% CI -0.64,0.21; 8-12 weeks: SMD -0.22,95% CI -0.65, 0.20). Individual study data showed beneficial effects for foot orthoses with and without multimodal physiotherapy (vs flat inserts), exercise (vs control), closed chain exercises (vs open chain exercises), patella taping in conjunction with exercise (vs exercise alone) and acupuncture (vs control). Findings suggest that, in implementing evidence-based practice for the nonsurgical management of anterior knee pain, sports medicine practitioners should prescribe local, proximal and distal components of multimodal physiotherapy in the first instance for suitable patients, and then consider foot orthoses or acupuncture as required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The high prevalence of injury amongst cricket fast bowlers exposes a great need for research into the risk factors associated with injury. Both extrinsic (environment-related) and intrinsic (person-related) risk factors are likely to be implicated within the high prevalence of non-contact injury amongst fast bowlers in cricket. Identifying and defining the relative importance of these risk factors is necessary in order to optimize injury prevention efforts. Objective: The objective of this review was to assess and summarize the scientific literature related to the extrinsic and intrinsic factors associated with non-contact injury inherent to adult cricket fast bowlers. Method: A systematic review was performed in compliance with the PRISMA guidelines. This review considered both experimental and epidemiological study designs. Studies that included male cricket fast bowlers aged 18 years or above, from all levels of play, evaluating the association between extrinsic/intrinsic factors and injury in fast bowlers were considered for inclusion. The three-step search strategy aimed at finding both published and unpublished studies from all languages. The searched databases included MEDLINE via PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register in the Cochrane Library, Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro), ProQuest 5000 International, ProQuest Health and Medical Complete, EBSCO MegaFile Premier, Science Direct, SPORTDiscus with Full Text and SCOPUS (prior to 28 April 2015). Initial keywords used were 'cricket', 'pace', 'fast', 'bowler', and 'injury'. Papers which fitted the inclusion criteria were assessed by two independent reviewers for methodological validity prior to inclusion in the review using standardized critical appraisal instruments from the Joanna Briggs Institute Meta Analysis of Statistics Assessment and Review Instrument (JBI-MAStARI). Results: A total of 16 studies were determined to be suitable for inclusion in this systematic review. The mean critical appraisal score of the papers included in this study was 6.88 (SD 1.15) out of a maximum of 9. The following factors were found to be associated with injury: bowling shoulder internal rotation strength deficit, compromised dynamic balance and lumbar proprioception (joint position sense), the appearance of lumbar posterior element bone stress, degeneration of the lumbar disc on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and previous injury. Conflicting results were found for the association of quadratus lumborum (QL) muscle asymmetry with injury. Technique-related factors associated with injury included shoulder-pelvis flexion-extension angle, shoulder counter-rotation, knee angle, and the proportion of side-flexion during bowling. Bowling workload was the only extrinsic factor associated with injury in adult cricket fast bowlers. A high bowling workload (particularly if it represented a sudden upgrade from a lower workload) increased the subsequent risk to sustaining an injury 1, 3 or 4 weeks later. Conclusion: Identifying the factors associated with injury is a crucial step which should precede the development of, and research into, the effectiveness of injury prevention programs. Once identified, risk factors may be included in pre-participation screening tools and injury prevention programs, and may also be incorporated in future research projects. Overall, the current review highlights the clear lack of research on factors associated with non-contact injury, specifically in adult cricket fast bowlers. Systematic review registration number Johanna Briggs Institute Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports 1387 (Olivier et al., JBI Database Syst Rev Implement Rep 13(1):3-13. doi:, ). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Soccer is the most popular sport worldwide, with a long history and currently more than 500 million active participants, of whom 300 million are registered football club members. On the basis of scientific findings showing positive fitness and health effects of recreational soccer, FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) introduced the slogan 'Playing football for 45 min twice a week-best prevention of non-communicable diseases' in 2010. Objective: The objective of this paper was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature to determine the effects of recreational soccer on maximal oxygen uptake ( $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ ). Methods: Six electronic databases (MEDLINE, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, CINAHL and Google Scholar) were searched for original research articles. A manual search was performed to cover the areas of recreational soccer, recreational physical activity, recreational small-sided games and $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ using the following key terms, either singly or in combination: recreational small-sided games, recreational football, recreational soccer, street football, street soccer, effect, maximal oxygen uptake, peak oxygen uptake, cardiorespiratory fitness, $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ . The inclusion criteria were divided into four sections: type of study, type of participants, type of interventions and type of outcome measures. Probabilistic magnitude-based inferences for meta-analysed effects were based on standardised thresholds for small, moderate and large changes (0.2, 0.6 and 1.2, respectively) derived from between-subject standard deviations for baseline fitness. Results: Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis. Mean differences showed that $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ increased by 3.51 mL/kg/min (95 % CI 3.07-4.15) over a recreational soccer training programme in comparison with other training models. The meta-analysed effects of recreational soccer on $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ compared with the controls of no exercise, continuous running and strength training were most likely largely beneficial [effect size (ES) = 1.46; 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.91, 2.01; I = 88.35 %], most likely moderately beneficial (ES = 0.68; 95 % CI 0.06, 1.29; I = 69.13 %) and most likely moderately beneficial (ES = 1.08; 95 % CI −0.25, 2.42; I = 71.06 %), respectively. In men and women, the meta-analysed effect was most likely largely beneficial for men (ES = 1.22) and most likely moderately beneficial for women (ES = 0.96) compared with the controls. After 12 weeks of recreational soccer with an intensity of 78-84 % maximal heart rate (HR), healthy untrained men improved their $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ by 8-13 %, while untrained elderly participants improved their $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ by 15-18 %. Soccer training for 12-70 weeks in healthy women resulted in an improvement in $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ of 5-16 %. Significant improvements in $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ have been observed in patients with diabetes mellitus, hypertension and prostate cancer. Conclusion: Recreational soccer produces large improvements in $$ \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2\;\hbox{max} } $$ compared to strength training and no exercise, regardless of the age, sex and health status of the participants. Furthermore, recreational soccer is better than continuous endurance running, albeit the additional effect is moderate. This kind of physical activity has great potential for enhancing aerobic fitness, and for preventing and treating non-communicable diseases, and is ideal for addressing lack of motivation, a key component in physical (in)activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ankle sprain is one of the most common musculoskeletal injuries, yet a contemporary review and meta-analysis of prospective epidemiological studies investigating ankle sprain does not exist. Objective: Our aim is to provide an up-to-date account of the incidence rate and prevalence period of ankle sprain injury unlimited by timeframe or context activity. Methods: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analyses of English articles using relevant computerised databases. Search terms included Medical Search Headings for the ankle joint, injury and epidemiology. The following inclusion criteria were used: the study must report epidemiology findings of injuries sustained in an observed sample; the study must report ankle sprain injury with either incidence rate or prevalence period among the surveyed sample, or provide sufficient data from which these figures could be calculated; the study design must be prospective. Independent extraction of articles was performed by two authors using pre-determined data fields. Results: One-hundred and eighty-one prospective epidemiology studies from 144 separate papers were included. The average rating of all the included studies was 6.67/11, based on an adapted version of the STROBE (STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology) guidelines for rating observational studies. 116 studies were considered high quality and 65 were considered low quality. The main findings of the meta-analysis demonstrated a higher incidence of ankle sprain in females compared with males (13.6 vs 6.94 per 1,000 exposures), in children compared with adolescents (2.85 vs 1.94 per 1,000 exposures) and adolescents compared with adults (1.94 vs 0.72 per 1,000 exposures). The sport category with the highest incidence of ankle sprain was indoor/court sports, with a cumulative incidence rate of 7 per 1,000 exposures or 1.37 per 1,000 athlete exposures and 4.9 per 1,000 h. Low-quality studies tended to underestimate the incidence of ankle sprain when compared with high-quality studies (0.54 vs 11.55 per 1,000 exposures). Ankle sprain prevalence period estimates were similar across sub-groups. Lateral ankle sprain was the most commonly observed type of ankle sprain. Conclusions: Females were at a higher risk of sustaining an ankle sprain compared with males and children compared with adolescents and adults, with indoor and court sports the highest risk activity. Studies at a greater risk of bias were more likely to underestimate the risk of ankle sprain. Participants were at a significantly higher risk of sustaining a lateral ankle sprain compared with syndesmotic and medial ankle sprains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The adolescent 'growth spurt' results in rapid growth of the skeletal system. It has been theorised that absence of a concomitant increase in muscular adaptations in female athletes may predispose them to an increased risk of anterior cruciate ligament injuries. Objectives: To determine if sex differences exist in landing biomechanics and postural stability of adolescent athletes; with a further objective of determining if such differences are propagated during adolescence. Data sources: The following databases were searched: MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PEDro, PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science. Research papers were identified by including search terms for neuromuscular control, lower limb and pubertal development. Inclusion Criteria: Studies were required to be written in English; report on biomechanical analyses; include landing or postural control tasks; be cross-sectional or longitudinal; and include healthy adolescent/pubertal subjects. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: A modified version of the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology checklist was used to rate methodological quality. Meta-analyses were performed when more than one study reported on an outcome measure. Results: Sixteen articles were included. The overall methodological quality of evaluated studies was low (mean score = 5.75/10 points). Adolescent females exhibited increased knee valgus with increasing maturity. There was no consensus on sex differences in postural stability. Conclusions: With increasing maturation, females are characterized by increased knee valgus during landing tasks. To date, no research has longitudinally investigated postural stability development during adolescence in females, despite the importance of postural control training in injury prevention programmes. Therefore, further research on this topic is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Clinicians manage midportion Achilles tendinopathy (AT) using complex clinical reasoning underpinned by a rapidly developing evidence base. Objectives: The objectives of the study were to develop an inclusive, accessible review of the literature in combination with an account of expert therapists' related clinical reasoning to guide clinical practice and future research. Methods: Searches of the electronic databases, PubMed, ISI Web of Science, PEDro, CINAHL, EMBASE, and Google Scholar were conducted for all papers published from inception to November 2011. Reference lists and citing articles were searched for further relevant articles. Inclusion required studies to evaluate the effectiveness of any conservative intervention for midportion AT. Exclusion criteria included in vitro, animal and cadaver studies and tendinopathies in other locations (e.g. patella, supraspinatus). From a total of 3497 identified in the initial search, 47 studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Studies were scored according to the PEDro scale, with a score of ≥8/10 considered of excellent quality, 5-7/10 good, and ≤4/ 10 poor. The strength of evidence supporting each treatment modality was then rated as `strong', `moderate', `limited', `conflicting' or `no evidence' according to the number and quality of articles supporting that modality. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with physiotherapists to explore clinical reasoning related to the use of various interventions with and without an evidence base, and their perceptions of available evidence. Results: Evidence was strong for eccentric loading exercises and extra- corporeal shockwave therapy; moderate for splinting/bracing, active rest, low-level laser therapy and concentric exercises (i.e. inferior to eccentric exercise). In-shoe foot orthoses and therapeutic ultrasound had limited evidence. There was conflicting evidence for topical glycerin trinitrate. Taping techniques and soft-tissue mobilization were not yet examined but featured in case studies and in the interview data. Framework analysis of interview transcripts yielded multiple themes relating to physiotherapists' clinical reasoning and perceptions of the evidence, including the difficulty in causing pain while treating the condition and the need to vary research protocols for specific client groups - such as those with the metabolic syndrome as a likely etiological factor. Physiotherapists were commonly applying the modality with the strongest evidence base, eccentric loading exercises. Barriers to research being translated into practice identified included the lack of consistency of outcome measures, excessive stringency of some authoritative reviews and difficulty in accessing primary research reports. The broad inclusion criteria meant some lower quality studies were included in this review. However, this was deliberate to ensure that all available research evidence for the management of midportion AT, and all studies were evaluated using the PEDro scale to compensate for the lack of stringent inclusion criteria. Conclusion: Graded evidence combined with qualitative analysis of clinical reasoning produced a novel and clinically applicable guide to conservative management of midportion AT. This guide wilt be useful to novice clinicians learning how to manage this treatment-resistant condition and to expert clinicians reviewing their evidence-based practice and developing their clinical reasoning. Important areas requiring future research were identified including the effectiveness of orthoses, the effectiveness of manual therapy, etiological factors, optimal application of loading related to stage of presentation and how to optimize protocols for different types of patients such as the older patient with the metabolic syndrome as opposed to the athletically active. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Stakeholders have an important role in both prevention and management of work related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs). However, the scope of practice is unclear regarding the methods and levels of stakeholder engagement (SE) in management of WRMSDs. The aim of this review is to map the literature regarding various methods and levels of SE and how it is best implemented when managing WRMSDs. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in several major databases using key search phrases. Various methods and levels of SE in management of WRMSDs were extracted. Comprehensiveness and repeatability of the SE methods were evaluated. The final results on SE in WRMSDs were presented as per the Guidance for Reporting Involvement of Patients and Public (GRIPP-2) guidelines. Results: A total of 32 studies reported various methods and levels of SE in management of WRMSDs. Two distinct areas, namely prevention (n=14) and primary management of WRMSDs (n=18) were reported. Overall, 17 unique methods of SE in management of WRMSDs were presented. A total of 30 studies gave sufficient information for either full (n=9) or partial (=21) replication of methods of SE. Only a few studies (n=6) involved higher levels of SE in management of WRMSDs. Conclusion: A clear mapping of SE in management of WRMSDs was presented for effective involvement of stakeholders in WRMSDs polices and care plan. SE approaches in WRMSDs management should move forward from a tokenistic approach of engaging stakeholders and it should involve them in a more lead roles in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Rapid developments in technology have encouraged the use of smartphones in physical activity research, although little is known regarding their effectiveness as measurement and intervention tools. Objective: This study systematically reviewed evidence on smartphones and their viability for measuring and influencing physical activity. Data Sources: Research articles were identified in September 2013 by literature searches in Web of Knowledge, PubMed, PsycINFO, EBSCO, and ScienceDirect. Study Selection: The search was restricted using the terms (physical activity OR exercise OR fitness) AND (smartphone* OR mobile phone* OR cell phone*) AND (measurement OR intervention). Reviewed articles were required to be published in international academic peer-reviewed journals, or in full text from international scientific conferences, and focused on measuring physical activity through smartphone processing data and influencing people to be more active through smartphone applications. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: Two reviewers independently performed the selection of articles and examined titles and abstracts to exclude those out of scope. Data on study characteristics, technologies used to objectively measure physical activity, strategies applied to influence activity; and the main study findings were extracted and reported. Results: A total of 26 articles (with the first published in 2007) met inclusion criteria. All studies were conducted in highly economically advantaged countries; 12 articles focused on special populations (e.g. obese patients). Studies measured physical activity using native mobile features, and/or an external device linked to an application. Measurement accuracy ranged from 52 to 100 % ( n = 10 studies). A total of 17 articles implemented and evaluated an intervention. Smartphone strategies to influence physical activity tended to be ad hoc, rather than theory-based approaches; physical activity profiles, goal setting, real-time feedback, social support networking, and online expert consultation were identified as the most useful strategies to encourage physical activity change. Only five studies assessed physical activity intervention effects; all used step counts as the outcome measure. Four studies (three pre-post and one comparative) reported physical activity increases (12-42 participants, 800-1,104 steps/day, 2 weeks-6 months), and one case-control study reported physical activity maintenance ( n = 200 participants; >10,000 steps/day) over 3 months. Limitations: Smartphone use is a relatively new field of study in physical activity research, and consequently the evidence base is emerging. Conclusions: Few studies identified in this review considered the validity of phone-based assessment of physical activity. Those that did report on measurement properties found average-to-excellent levels of accuracy for different behaviors. The range of novel and engaging intervention strategies used by smartphones, and user perceptions on their usefulness and viability, highlights the potential such technology has for physical activity promotion. However, intervention effects reported in the extant literature are modest at best, and future studies need to utilize randomized controlled trial research designs, larger sample sizes, and longer study periods to better explore the physical activity measurement and intervention capabilities of smartphones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lateral ankle sprains (LASs) are among the most common sports-related injuries and a high percentage of individuals who sprain their ankle go on to develop chronic ankle instability (CAI). The condition of CAI is often classified as having pain, loss of function, and a restriction of, or failure to, return to levels of previous activity. Historically, uninjured healthy controls are used as a comparison group to study the biomechanical and neuromuscular consequences of CAI. However, this model is not ideal to determine why a portion of the population experiencing an ankle sprain does not recover. A more appropriate comparison may be individuals who had an ankle sprain, and thus the exposure, but did not go on to develop CAI (i.e., copers). Thus, the purpose of this review was to determine the existing discrepancies and common standards in definitions of, terminology used for, and the inclusionary/exclusionary criteria used to describe copers within the CAI literature. Multiple databases were searched by keywords and specific authors. Potential studies were screened independently by both authors. Inclusion criteria consisted of an explicit definition of copers and explicit inclusionary/exclusionary criteria. A total of 21 studies were included in the current study and had four outcomes extracted: (1) the definition of copers; (2) the terminology used; (3) specific inclusionary/exclusionary criteria; and (4) injury characteristics of the copers. Based on the included operational definitions, it is recommend that future operational definitions of copers include three key components: (1) an initial LAS; (2) subsequent lack of CAI symptoms (i.e., no complaints of disability or giving way); and (3) a time since injury component. The term coper was overwhelming used within the existing literature ( n = 15) and is thus recommended to be used in future studies when describing individuals who have suffered an LAS but failed to develop CAI. Minimal inclusionary criteria should consist of three things: (1) an initial LAS severe enough to warrant either the use of a protective device (e.g., ankle brace) for at least 1 week or immobilization and/or non-weight bearing for at least 3 days, or both; (2) a return to at least moderate levels of weight-bearing physical activity for at least 12 months without recurrent injury, episodes of giving way, and/or feelings of instability; and (3) minimal, if any, level of self-reported disability. Acute head and/or lower extremity injuries that occurred ≤3 months prior to testing, a history of ankle fractures and/or surgeries, and the presence of pain (constant or intermittent) should be used as minimal exclusionary criteria in future investigations dealing with copers. Finally, at least seven items should be reported to better contextualize copers across investigations. These items should include the initial mechanism of injury, the presence of mechanical laxity, number of days immobilized and/or non-weight bearing after the initial ankle sprain, time since the latest ankle sprain, percentage of coper participants with a recurrent ankle sprain or giving way episode, current physical activity levels, and whether copers attended formal rehabilitation for their involved ankle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although injuries to the head represent a small proportion of all sport injuries, they are of great concern due to their potential long-term consequences, which are even suspected in mild traumatic brain injuries.Objective: The aim of this review was to compare the incidence of concussions and other head injuries in elite level football, rugby, ice hockey and American Football.Methods: Four electronic databases (CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed) were searched. Prospective cohort studies on the incidence of concussion in elite athletes aged 17 years or older that were published in an English-language peer-reviewed journal since 2000 were included. Two authors independently evaluated study eligibility and quality. The extracted data on concussions were pooled in a meta-analysis using an inverse-variance fixed-effects model. The extracted data on head injuries were reported in a narrative and tabular summary.Results: The search yielded 7673 results of which 70 articles were included in the qualitative and 47 in the quantitative analysis. In our meta-analysis, we found the highest concussion incidences in rugby match play (3.89 and 3.00 concussions per 1000 h and athletic exposures (AEs), respectively), and the lowest in men’s football training (0.01 and 0.08 per 1000 h and AEs, respectively). Overall, concussions and all head injuries were rare in training when compared to match play. Female players had an increased concussion risk in football and ice hockey when compared to male players.Conclusion: Future research should focus on concussion in women’s contact sports, as there is little evidence available in this area. Methodological deficits are frequent in the current literature, especially regarding sample size and study power, and should be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems contribute to postural control. Chronic ankle instability (CAI) patients have been observed to have a reduced ability to dynamically shift their reliance among sources of sensory information and rely more heavily on visual information during a single-limb stance relative to uninjured controls. Balance training is proven to improve postural control but there is a lack of evidence regarding the ability of balance training programs to alter the reliance on visual information in CAI patients.Objective: Our objective was to determine if balance training alters the reliance on visual information during static stance in CAI patients.Methods: The PubMed, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched from their earliest available date to October 2017 using a combination of keywords. Study inclusion criteria consisted of (1) using participants with CAI; (2) use of a balance training intervention; and (3) calculation of an objective measure of static postural control during single-limb stance with eyes open and eyes closed. Sample sizes, means, and standard deviations of single-leg balance measures for eyes-open and eyes-closed testing conditions before and after balance training were extracted from the included studies. Eyes-open to eyes-closed effect sizes [Hedges’ g and 95% confidence intervals (CI)] before and after balance training were calculated, and between-study variability for heterogeneity and potential risks of publication bias were examined.Results: Six studies were identified. The overall eyes-open to eyes-closed effect size difference between pre- and post-intervention assessments was not significant (Hedges’ g effect size = 0.151, 95% CI = − 0.151 to 0.453, p = 0.26). This result indicates that the utilization of visual information in individuals with CAI during the single-leg balance is not altered after balance training. Low heterogeneity (Q(5) = 2.96, p = 0.71, I2 = 0%) of the included studies and no publication bias were found.Conclusion: On the basis of our systematic review with meta-analysis, it appears that traditional balance training protocols do not alter the reliance on visual information used by CAI patients during a single-leg stance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To commence injury prevention efforts, it is necessary to understand the magnitude of the injury problem. No systematic reviews have yet investigated the extent of injuries in field hockey, despite the popularity of the sport worldwide.Objective: Our objective was to describe the rate and severity of injuries in field hockey and investigate their characteristics.Methods: We conducted electronic searches in PubMed, Embase, SPORTDiscus, and CINAHL. Prospective cohort studies were included if they were published in English in a peer-reviewed journal and observed all possible injuries sustained by field hockey players during the period of the study.Results: The risk of bias score of the 22 studies included ranged from three to nine of a possible ten. In total, 12 studies (55%) reported injuries normalized by field hockey exposure. Injury rates ranged from 0.1 injuries (in school-aged players) to 90.9 injuries (in Africa Cup of Nations) per 1000 player-hours and from one injury (in high-school women) to 70 injuries (in under-21 age women) per 1000 player-sessions. Studies used different classifications for injury severity, but—within studies—injuries were included mostly in the less severe category. The lower limbs were most affected, and contusions/hematomas and abrasions were common types of injury. Contact injuries are common, but non-contact injuries are also a cause for concern.Conclusions: Considerable heterogeneity meant it was not possible to draw conclusive findings on the extent of the rate and severity of injuries. Establishing the extent of sports injury is considered the first step towards prevention, so there is a need for a consensus on injury surveillance in field hockey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Midportion Achilles tendinopathy (AT) can cause long-term absence from sports participation, and shows high recurrence rates. It is important that the decision to return to sport (RTS) is made carefully, based on sharply delimited criteria. Lack of a well-defined definition and criteria hampers the decision to RTS among athletes with AT, and impedes comparison of RTS rates between different studies.Objective: The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature for definitions of, and criteria for, RTS in AT research.Study Design: Qualitative systematic review.Methods: The PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, CINAHL, PEDro, and Scopus electronic databases were searched for articles that reported on the effect of a physiotherapeutic intervention for midportion AT. Article selection was independently performed by two researchers. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze the included studies and extract definitions of, and criteria for, RTS.Results: Thirty-five studies were included in the content analysis, showing large variety in both the definitions and criteria. Thirty-two studies reported a definition of RTS, but only 19 studies described the criteria for RTS. The content analysis revealed that ‘reaching pre-injury activity/sports level, with the ability to perform training and matches without limitations’, ‘absence of pain’, and ‘recovery’ were the main content categories used to define RTS. Regarding the criteria for RTS, eight different content categories were defined: (1) ‘level of pain’; (2) ‘level of functional recovery’; (3) ‘recovery of muscle strength’; (4) ‘recovery of range of motion’; (5) ‘level of endurance of the involved limb’; (6) ‘medical advice’; (7) ‘psychosocial factors’; and (8) ‘anatomical/physiological properties of the musculotendinous complex’. Many criteria were not clearly operationalized and lacked specific information.Conclusions: This systematic review shows that RTS may be defined according to the pre-injury level of sports (including both training and matches), but also with terms related to the absence of pain and recovery. Multiple criteria for RTS were found, which were all related to level of pain, level of functional recovery, muscular strength, range of motion, endurance, medical advice, psychosocial factors, or anatomical/physiological properties of the Achilles tendon. For most of the criteria we identified, no clear operationalization was given, which limits their validity and practical usability. Further research on how RTS after midportion AT should be defined, and which criteria should be used, is warranted.PROSPERO Registration Number: CRD42017062518. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Team bat-or-stick sports, including cricket, softball and hockey, are popular among women. However, little is known about the injury profile in this population.Objective: The aim was to describe the incidence, nature and anatomical location of injuries in bat-or-stick sports played by women in a competitive league.Methods: This review was prospectively registered (PROSPERO CRD42015026715). CINAHL, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, SPORTDiscus were systematically searched from January 2000 to September 2016, inclusive. Peer-reviewed original research articles reporting the incidence, nature and anatomical location of injuries sustained by women aged 18 + years in competitive bat-or-stick sports were included. Two meta-analyses based on injury incidence proportions (injury IP) and injury rates per 1000 person-days of athletic exposure (AE) were performed.Results: A total of 37 studies satisfied the inclusion criteria, and five had low risk of bias. The weighted injury IP was 0.42 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.39–0.45]. The weighted injury rate was 6.12 (95% CI 6.05–6.18) overall, and greater in games [15.79 (95% CI 15.65–15.93)] than in practice [3.07 (95% CI 2.99–3.15)]. The ankle was the most commonly injured anatomical location, followed by the hand (including wrist and fingers), knee and head. Soft tissue and ligament injuries were most common types of injuries.Conclusion: Injury prevention in women’s sports is a novel and emerging field of research interest. This review highlights that injury incidence is high among female bat-or-stick players, but little information is known about direct causal mechanisms. This review clearly establishes the need for enhancements to injury data collection. Without this information, it will not be possible to develop evidence-based injury prevention interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many factors are thought to contribute to chronic ankle instability (CAI). Multiple systematic reviews have synthesised the available evidence to identify the primary contributing factors. However, readers are now faced with several systematic reviews that present conflicting findings. Objective: The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to establish the statistical significance and effect size of primary factors contributing to CAI and to identify likely reasons for inconsistencies in the literature. Methods: Relevant health databases were searched: CINAHL, MEDLINE, PubMed, Scopus and SPORTDiscus. Systematic reviews were included if they answered a focused research question, clearly defined the search strategy criteria and study selection/inclusion and completed a comprehensive search of the literature. Included reviews needed to be published in a peer-reviewed journal and needed to review observational studies of factors and/or characteristics of persons with CAI, with or without meta-analysis. There was no language restriction. Studies using a non-systematic review methodology (e.g. primary studies and narrative reviews) were excluded. Methodological quality of systematic reviews was assessed using the modified R-AMSTAR tool. Meta-analysis on included primary studies was performed. Results: Only 17% of primary studies measured a clearly defined CAI population. There is strong evidence to support the contribution of dynamic balance, peroneal reaction time and eversion strength deficits and moderate evidence for proprioception and static balance deficits to non-specific ankle instability. Conclusions: Evidence from previous systematic reviews does not accurately reflect the CAI population. For treatment of non-specific ankle instability, clinicians should focus on dynamic balance, reaction time and strength deficits; however, these findings may not be translated to the CAI population. Research should be updated with an adequately controlled CAI population. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO 2016, CRD42016032592. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Late-stage rehabilitation programs often incorporate 'sport-specific' demands, but may not optimally simulate the in-game volume or intensity of such activities as sprinting, cutting, jumping, and lateral movement. Objective: The aim of this review was to characterize, quantify, and compare straight-line running and multi-directional demands during sport competition. Data Sources: A systematic review of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases was conducted. Study Eligibility Criteria: Studies that reported time-motion analysis data on straight-line running, accelerations/decelerations, activity changes, jumping, cutting, or lateral movement over the course of an entire competition in a multi-directional sport (soccer, basketball, lacrosse, handball, field hockey, futsal, volleyball) were included. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: Data was organized based on sport, age level, and sex and descriptive statistics of the frequency, intensity, time, and volume of the characteristics of running and multi-directional demands were extracted from each study. Results: Eighty-one studies were included in the review ( n = 47 soccer, n = 11 basketball, n = 9 handball, n = 7 field hockey, n = 3 futsal, n = 4 volleyball). Variability of sport demand data was found across sports, sexes, and age levels. Specifically, soccer and field hockey demanded the most volume of running, while basketball required the highest ratio of high-intensity running to sprinting. Athletes change activity between 500 and 3000 times over the course of a competition, or once every 2-4 s. Studies of soccer reported the most frequent cutting (up to 800 per game), while studies of basketball reported the highest frequency of lateral movement (up to 450 per game). Basketball (42-56 per game), handball (up to 90 per game), and volleyball (up to 35 per game) were found to require the most jumping. Limitations: These data may provide an incomplete view of an athlete's straight-line running load, considering that only competition and not practice data was provided. Conclusions: Considerable variability exists in the demands of straight-line running and multi-directional demands across sports, competition levels, and sexes, indicating the need for sports medicine clinicians to design future rehabilitation programs with improved specificity (including the type of activity and dosage) to these demands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Type two diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is caused and progressed by an individual's lifestyle and, therefore, its optimal day-to-day management may involve the patient taking responsibility for this, including fulfilling a planned and prescribed exercise regime used as part of the treatment. A prescription of exercise designed to meet a patient's individual needs with minimal supervision from healthcare practitioners would facilitate this. However, the optimal prescription of exercise in the population remains unclear. Objective: This review examines the effects planned self-directed exercise has on glycosylated haemoglobin and other outcomes in individuals with T2DM and aims to identify the most suitable forms of planned self-directed exercise for individuals with T2DM that can be carried out independently. Methods: A search of the electronic databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane (Trials) and ClinicalTrials.gov was conducted along with reference lists of previous reviews. Randomised controlled trials published in English between January 1990 and February 2015 examining participants diagnosed with T2DM only were included. Studies were critically appraised using the PEDro (Physiotherapy Evidence Database) scale and data were presented on standardised tables. Results: Twenty-eight articles that used five element gymnastics, a games console exercise intervention (Wii fit plus) or aerobic, resistance or combined training were included. Conclusion: This review comprehensively summarised the effects planned self-directed exercise interventions had on individuals with T2DM. The review found that self-directed exercise was found to be beneficial for individuals with T2DM for improving glycosylated haemoglobin, physical characteristics, cardiorespiratory fitness, functional measures and other metabolic outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In professional senior soccer, training load monitoring is used to ensure an optimal workload to maximize physical fitness and prevent injury or illness. However, to date, different training load indicators are used without a clear link to training outcomes. Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to identify the state of knowledge with respect to the relationship between training load indicators and training outcomes in terms of physical fitness, injury, and illness. Methods: A systematic search was conducted in four electronic databases (CINAHL, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science). Training load was defined as the amount of stress over a minimum of two training sessions or matches, quantified in either external (e.g., duration, distance covered) or internal load (e.g., heart rate [HR]), to obtain a training outcome over time. Results: A total of 6492 records were retrieved, of which 3304 were duplicates. After screening the titles, abstracts and full texts, we identified 12 full-text articles that matched our inclusion criteria. One of these articles was identified through additional sources. All of these articles used correlations to examine the relationship between load indicators and training outcomes. For pre-season, training time spent at high intensity (i.e., >90 % of maximal HR) was linked to positive changes in aerobic fitness. Exposure time in terms of accumulated training, match or combined training, and match time showed both positive and negative relationships with changes in fitness over a season. Muscular perceived exertion may indicate negative changes in physical fitness. Additionally, it appeared that training at high intensity may involve a higher injury risk. Detailed external load indicators, using electronic performance and tracking systems, are relatively unexamined. In addition, most research focused on the relationship between training load indicators and changes in physical fitness, but less on injury and illness. Conclusion: HR indicators showed relationships with positive changes in physical fitness during pre-season. In addition, exposure time appeared to be related to positive and negative changes in physical fitness. Despite the availability of more detailed training load indicators nowadays, the evidence about the usefulness in relation to training outcomes is rare. Future research should implement continuous monitoring of training load, combined with the individual characteristics, to further examine their relationship with physical fitness, injury, and illness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Weight-training sports, including weightlifting, powerlifting, bodybuilding, strongman, Highland Games, and CrossFit, are weight-training sports that have separate divisions for males and females of a variety of ages, competitive standards, and bodyweight classes. These sports may be considered dangerous because of the heavy loads commonly used in training and competition. Objectives: Our objective was to systematically review the injury epidemiology of these weight-training sports, and, where possible, gain some insight into whether this may be affected by age, sex, competitive standard, and bodyweight class. Methods: We performed an electronic search using PubMed, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, and Embase for injury epidemiology studies involving competitive athletes in these weight-training sports. Eligible studies included peer-reviewed journal articles only, with no limit placed on date or language of publication. We assessed the risk of bias in all studies using an adaption of the musculoskeletal injury review method. Results: Only five of the 20 eligible studies had a risk of bias score ≥75 %, meaning the risk of bias in these five studies was considered low. While 14 of the studies had sample sizes >100 participants, only four studies utilized a prospective design. Bodybuilding had the lowest injury rates (0.12-0.7 injuries per lifter per year; 0.24-1 injury per 1000 h), with strongman (4.5-6.1 injuries per 1000 h) and Highland Games (7.5 injuries per 1000 h) reporting the highest rates. The shoulder, lower back, knee, elbow, and wrist/hand were generally the most commonly injured anatomical locations; strains, tendinitis, and sprains were the most common injury type. Very few significant differences in any of the injury outcomes were observed as a function of age, sex, competitive standard, or bodyweight class. Conclusion: While the majority of the research we reviewed utilized retrospective designs, the weight-training sports appear to have relatively low rates of injury compared with common team sports. Future weight-training sport injury epidemiology research needs to be improved, particularly in terms of the use of prospective designs, diagnosis of injury, and changes in risk exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is associated with a self-perceived lack of size and muscularity, and is characterized by a preoccupation with and pursuit of a hyper-mesomorphic body. MD symptoms may hypothetically be more prevalent in bodybuilders (BBs) than in non-bodybuilder resistance trainers (NBBRTs). Objective: Our objective was to compare MD symptomatology in BBs versus NBBRTs and identify psychological and other characteristics associated with MD in these groups. Methods: We searched relevant databases from earliest record to February 2015 for studies examining MD symptoms in BBs and/or NBBRTs. Included studies needed to assess MD using a psychometrically validated assessment tool. Study quality was evaluated using an adapted version of the validated Downs and Black tool. We calculated between-group standardized mean difference (effect sizes [ESs]) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for each MD subscale, and performed meta-analysis when five or more studies used the same MD tool. We also extracted data describing psychological or other characteristics associated with MD. Results: Of the 2135 studies initially identified, 31 analyzing data on 5880 participants (BBs: n = 1895, NBBRTs: n = 3523, controls: n = 462) were eligible for inclusion, though study quality was generally poor-moderate (range 7-19/22). Most participants were male (90 %). Eight different MD assessment tools were used. Meta-analysis for five studies all using the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) revealed there was a medium to large pooled ES for greater MD symptomatology in BBs than in NBBRTs on all MDI subscales (ES 0.53-1.12; p ≤ 0.01). Competitive BBs scored higher than non-competitive BBs (ES 1.21, 95 % CI 0.82-1.60; p < 0.001). MD symptoms were associated with anxiety ( r 0.32-0.42; p ≤ 0.01), social physique anxiety ( r 0.26-0.75; p < 0.01), depression ( r 0.23-0.53; p ≤ 0.01), neuroticism ( r 0.38; p < 0.001), and perfectionism ( r 0.35; p < 0.05) and were inversely associated with self-concept ( r -0.32 to -0.36; p < 0.01) and self-esteem ( r -0.42 to -0.47; p < 0.01). Conclusions: MD symptomatology was greater in BBs than in NBBRTs. Anxiety and social physique anxiety, depression, neuroticism, and perfectionism were positively associated with MD, while self-concept and self-esteem were negatively associated. It remains unclear whether these characteristics are exacerbated by bodybuilding, or whether individuals with these characteristics are attracted to the bodybuilding context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) among people with severe mental illness (SMI) (i.e., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder) is a critical clinical risk factor given its relationship to cardiovascular disease and premature mortality. Objectives: This study aimed to: (1) investigate the mean CRF in people with SMI versus healthy controls; (2) explore moderators of CRF; and (3) investigate whether CRF improved with exercise interventions and establish if fitness improves more than body mass index following exercise interventions. Methods: Major electronic databases were searched systematically. A meta-analysis calculating Hedges' g statistic was undertaken. Results: Across 23 eligible studies, pooled mean CRF was 28.7 mL/kg/min [95 % confidence interval (CI) 27.3 to 30.0 mL/kg/min, p < 0.001, n = 980]. People with SMI had significantly lower CRF compared with controls ( n = 310) (Hedges' g = −1.01, 95 % CI −1.18 to −0.85, p < 0.001). There were no differences between diagnostic subgroups. In a multivariate regression, first-episode ( β = 6.6, 95 % CI 0.6-12.6) and inpatient ( β = 5.3, 95 % CI 1.6-9.0) status were significant predictors of higher CRF. Exercise improved CRF (Hedges' g = 0.33, 95 % CI = 0.21-0.45, p = 0.001), but did not reduce body mass index. Higher CRF improvements were observed following interventions at high intensity, with higher frequency (at least three times per week) and supervised by qualified personnel (i.e., physiotherapists and exercise physiologists). Conclusion: The multidisciplinary treatment of people with SMI should include a focus on improving fitness to reduce all-cause mortality. Qualified healthcare professionals supporting people with SMI in maintaining an active lifestyle should be included as part of multidisciplinary teams in mental health treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A combined estimate of injuries within a specific sport through pooled analysis provides more precise evidence and meaningful information about the sport, whilst controlling for between-study variation due to individual sub-cohort characteristics. The objective of this analysis was to review all published rugby league studies reporting injuries from match and training participation and report the pooled data estimates for rugby league concussion injury epidemiology. A systematic literature analysis of concussion in rugby league was performed on published studies from January 1990 to October 2015. Data were extracted and pooled from 25 studies that reported the number and incidence of concussions in rugby league match and training activities. Amateur rugby league players had the highest incidence of concussive injuries in match activities (19.1 per 1000 match hours) while semi-professional players had the highest incidence of concussive injuries in training activities (3.1 per 1000 training hours). This pooled analysis showed that, during match participation activities, amateur rugby league participants had a higher reported concussion injury rate than professional and semi-professional participants. Semi-professional participants had nearly a threefold greater concussion injury risk than amateur rugby league participants during match participation. They also had nearly a 600-fold greater concussion injury risk than professional rugby league participants during training participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Overuse injuries are multifactorial resulting from cumulative loading. Therefore, clear differences between normal and at-risk individuals may not be present for individual risk factors. Using a holistic measure that incorporates many of the identified risk factors, focusing on multiple joint movement patterns may give better insight into overuse injuries. Lower body stiffness may provide such a measure. Objective: To identify how risk factors for Achilles tendon injuries influence measures of lower body stiffness. Methods: SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, CINAHL and PubMed were searched for Achilles tendon injury risk factors related to vertical, leg and joint stiffness in running athletes. Results: Increased braking force and low surface stiffness, which were clearly associated with increased risk of Achilles tendon injuries, were also found to be associated with increased lower body stiffness. High arches and increased vertical and propulsive forces were protective for Achilles tendon injuries and were also associated with increased lower body stiffness. Risk factors for Achilles tendon injuries that had unclear associations were also investigated with the evidence trending towards an increase in leg stiffness and a decrease in ankle stiffness being detrimental to Achilles tendon health. Conclusion: Few studies have investigated the link between lower body stiffness and Achilles injury. High stiffness is potentially associated with risk factors for Achilles tendon injuries although some of the evidence is controversial. Prospective injury studies are needed to confirm this relationship. Large amounts of high-intensity or high-speed work or running on soft surfaces such as sand may increase Achilles injury risk. Coaches and clinicians working with athletes with new or reoccurring injuries should consider training practices of the athlete and recommend reducing speed or sand running if loading is deemed to be excessive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A number of resistance training (RT) program variables can be manipulated to maximize muscular hypertrophy. One variable of primary interest in this regard is RT frequency. Frequency can refer to the number of resistance training sessions performed in a given period of time, as well as to the number of times a specific muscle group is trained over a given period of time. Objective: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the effects of resistance training frequency on hypertrophic outcomes. Methods: Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) were an experimental trial published in an English-language refereed journal; (2) directly compared different weekly resistance training frequencies in traditional dynamic exercise using coupled concentric and eccentric actions; (3) measured morphologic changes via biopsy, imaging, circumference, and/or densitometry; (4) had a minimum duration of 4 weeks; and (5) used human participants without chronic disease or injury. A total of ten studies were identified that investigated RT frequency in accordance with the criteria outlined. Results: Analysis using binary frequency as a predictor variable revealed a significant impact of training frequency on hypertrophy effect size ( P = 0.002), with higher frequency being associated with a greater effect size than lower frequency (0.49 ± 0.08 vs. 0.30 ± 0.07, respectively). Statistical analyses of studies investigating training session frequency when groups are matched for frequency of training per muscle group could not be carried out and reliable estimates could not be generated due to inadequate sample size. Conclusions: When comparing studies that investigated training muscle groups between 1 to 3 days per week on a volume-equated basis, the current body of evidence indicates that frequencies of training twice a week promote superior hypertrophic outcomes to once a week. It can therefore be inferred that the major muscle groups should be trained at least twice a week to maximize muscle growth; whether training a muscle group three times per week is superior to a twice-per-week protocol remains to be determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The immediate post concussion assessment and cognitive testing (ImPACT) is the most widely used concussion assessment tool. Despite its popularity, it is unclear if validation studies for the ImPACT test covered all aspects of validity to support its widespread use in research and clinical practice. Objective: The purpose of this report is to review literature surrounding the validity and the utility of the ImPACT test. Data sources and appraisal: A systematic review of relevant studies in PubMed, CINAHL, and PsycINFO was carried out. Studies were evaluated using the STROBE (strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology) or the STARD (standards for reporting of diagnostic accuracy) criteria. Results: The literature search yielded 5968 studies. Sixty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative review. Although the convergent validity of ImPACT was supported, evidence of discriminant and predictive validity, diagnostic accuracy and responsiveness was inconclusive. The utility of the ImPACT test after acute symptom resolution was sparse. The review found many factors influenced the validity and utility of ImPACT scores. Conclusion: Clinicians must consider the benefit of ImPACT testing for their patients on a case-by-case scenario and must take the psychometric properties of the test into account when interpreting results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Meniscal pathology is a commonly seen orthopedic condition that can affect a wide age range of patients. Athletes subject their menisci to an increased amount of stress during their careers and may increase their risk of meniscal pathology. Objective: The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate the prevalence of isolated meniscal pathology in asymptomatic athletes. Methods: A systematic review was undertaken to determine the prevalence of meniscal pathology in asymptomatic athletes. A search of multiple databases was conducted. Recreational and higher-level athletes were included. Fourteen articles including 295 athletes (208 male, 87 female) were identified for inclusion (age range 14-66 years, mean 31.2 years). Meniscal pathology was visualized with magnetic resonance imaging and graded on a 1-4 scale (grades 1 and 2 indicating intrasubstance damage, grades 3 and 4 indicating a tear). Results: There was an overall prevalence of 27.2 % (105/386) of knees with intrasubstance meniscal damage (grades 1 and 2), and 3.9 % (15/386) of knees with a tear (grades 3 and 4). When athletes were split into those who participate in pivoting sports versus non-pivoting sports, pivoting athletes showed an overall prevalence of 15.3 % (31/202) of knees with intrasubstance meniscal pathology and 2.5 % (5/202) of knees with a tear. Non-pivoting athletes showed a prevalence of 54.5 % (61/112) of knees with intrasubstance meniscal pathology and 5.4 % (6/112) of knees with a tear. Conclusion: The overall prevalence of isolated meniscal pathology in asymptomatic athletes was 31.1 % (27.2 % with intrasubstance meniscal damage and 3.9 % with a meniscal tear). More studies of age-comparable, non-athletic populations are necessary for direct comparison with these groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The FIFA Medical and Research Centre (F-MARC) has designed a comprehensive warm-up program targeting muscular strength, body kinaesthetic awareness, and neuromuscular control during static and dynamic movements to decrease injury risk for soccer players. Prior studies have investigated the effectiveness of the F-MARC programs, but have not consistently reported a statistically significant reduction in injury and reduction in time loss due to injury from utilizing the program. Objective: The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and interventional studies that evaluated the efficacy of the F-MARC injury prevention programs in soccer. Methods: Two independent researchers searched the relevant article databases. The keyword domains used during the search were 'F-MARC', 'FIFA 11+', 'the 11+', 'injury prevention programs', 'soccer', and variations of these keywords. The initial search resulted in 4299 articles which were filtered to nine articles that met the inclusion criteria. Main inclusion criteria were randomized controlled trials or interventional studies, use of F-MARC injury prevention programs, and the primary outcome measuring overall and lower extremity injuries. Extracted data were entered and analyzed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software, version 2 (CMA.V2). Results: The pooled results based on total injuries per 1000 h of exposure showed that F-MARC injury prevention programs had a statistically significant reduction in the overall injury risk ratio of 0.771 (95 % CI 0.647-0.918, p = 0.003) and the lower extremity injury risk ratio of 0.762 (95 % CI 0.621-0.935, p = 0.009). Moreover, FIFA '11+' had a statistically significant reduction in the overall injury risk ratio to 0.654 (95 % CI 0.537-0.798, p < 0.001) and the lower extremity injury risk ratio of 0.612 (95 % CI 0.475-0.788, p < 0.001). However, FIFA '11' did not reach significance for the lower extremity and overall injury reduction. It can be suggested that teams involved in the FIFA '11+' warm-up program will reduce injury rates by between 20 and 50 % in the long term compared with the teams that do not engage in F-MARC programs. Conclusions: This systematic review and meta-analysis indicated that use of F-MARC injury prevention programs, particularly the '11+' program, decreases the risk of injuries among soccer players. These data also support the case for the development and introduction of sport-specific programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dietary supplements (DSs) are commercially available products consumed as an addition to the usual diet and are frequently ingested by athletes. Objective: Our objective was to examine the prevalence of DS use by athletes. Data Sources: PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, OVID Healthstar, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health were searched for original research articles published up to August 2014. Search terms included specific sports, specific DSs, and other terms. Study Selection: Studies were selected if they were written in English, involved athletes, and provided a quantitative assessment of the proportion of athletes using specific DSs. Summary Measure: Percent of athletes using specific DSs. Synthesis of Data: Methodological quality of studies was assessed by three reviewers using an 8-point scale that included evaluations for sampling methods, sampling frame, sample size, measurement tools, bias, response rate, statistical presentation, and description of the participant sample. Where there were at least two investigations, meta-analysis was performed to obtain summary (pooled) prevalence estimates (SPEs) on (1) DS use prevalence by sport and sex, (2) DS use prevalence by elite versus non-elite athletic status, and (3) specific DS prevalence for all athletic groups combined. Meta-analyses included evaluations of homogeneity and publication bias. Results: A total of 159 unique studies met the review criteria. Methodological quality was generally low with an average ± standard deviation of 43 ± 16 % of available rating points. There was low homogeneity for SPEs when compiled by sport, athletic status, and/or specific DSs. Contributing to the lack of homogeneity were differences in studies' objectives and types of assessments used (e.g., dietary surveys, interviews, questionnaires). Despite these limitations, the data generally indicated that elite athletes used DSs much more than their non-elite counterparts. For most DSs, use prevalence was similar for men and women except that a larger proportion of women used iron while a larger proportion of men used vitamin E, protein, and creatine. No consistent change in use over time was observed because even the earliest investigations showed relatively high use prevalence. Conclusion: It was difficult to generalize regarding DS use by athletes because of the lack of homogeneity among studies. Nonetheless, the data suggested that elite athletes used dietary supplements far more than their non-elite counterparts; use was similar for men and women with a few exceptions; use appeared to change little over time; and a larger proportion of athletes used DSs compared with the general US population. Improvements in study methodology should be considered in future studies especially (1) defining DSs for participants; (2) querying for very specific DSs; (3) using a variety of reporting timeframes (e.g., daily, 2-6 times/week, 1 time/week and <1 time/week); (4) reporting the sampling frame, number of individuals solicited, and number responding; (5) reporting characteristics of volunteers (and non-volunteers, if available); and (6) using similar methods on several occasions to examine possible temporal trends among athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In order to implement running to promote physical activity, it is essential to quantify the extent to which running improves health. Objective: The aim was to summarise the literature on the effects of endurance running on biomedical indices of health in physically inactive adults. Data Sources: Electronic searches were conducted in October 2014 on PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, PEDro, the Cochrane Library and LILACS, with no limits of date and language of publication. Study Selection: Randomised controlled trials (with a minimum of 8 weeks of running training) that included physically inactive but healthy adults (18-65 years) were selected. The studies needed to compare intervention (i.e. endurance running) and control (i.e. no intervention) groups. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: Two authors evaluated study eligibility, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias; a third author resolved any uncertainties. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed to summarise the estimates for length of training and sex. A dose-response analysis was performed with random-effects meta-regression in order to investigate the relationship between running characteristics and effect sizes. Results: After screening 22,380 records, 49 articles were included, of which 35 were used to combine data on ten biomedical indices of health. On average the running programs were composed of 3.7 ± 0.9 sessions/week, 2.3 ± 1.0 h/week, 14.4 ± 5.4 km/week, at 60-90 % of the maximum heart rate, and lasted 21.5 ± 16.8 weeks. After 1 year of training, running was effective in reducing body mass by 3.3 kg [95 % confidence interval (CI) 4.1-2.5], body fat by 2.7 % (95 % CI 5.1-0.2), resting heart rate by 6.7 min (95 % CI 10.3-3.0) and triglycerides by 16.9 mg dl (95 % CI 28.1-5.6). Also, running significantly increased maximal oxygen uptake ( VO) by 7.1 ml min kg (95 % CI 5.0-9.1) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by 3.3 mg dl (95 % CI 1.2-5.4). No significant effect was found for lean body mass, body mass index, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol after 1 year of training. In the dose-response analysis, larger effect sizes were found for longer length of training. Limitations: It was only possible to combine the data of ten out the 161 outcome measures identified. Lack of information on training characteristics precluded a multivariate model in the dose-response analysis. Conclusions: Endurance running was effective in providing substantial beneficial effects on body mass, body fat, resting heart rate, VO, triglycerides and HDL cholesterol in physically inactive adults. The longer the length of training, the larger the achieved health benefits. Clinicians and health authorities can use this information to advise individuals to run, and to support policies towards investing in running programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The vertical jump (VJ) is considered a key indicator of lower limb explosive strength. Previous research has established that rate of force development and time to peak force are linked closely to athletic ability and hence the ability to extract these accurately is of significance. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to (1) review the literature to ascertain what methods are currently used to extract jump phases from the force platform data and (2) compare identified methods on neutral data. Methods: In Part 1, an electronic search was conducted using PubMed, Central, and EBSCO host (January 1965 to April 2014). Articles were included if they (1) detailed how VJ phases from the force platform data were identified and (2) used only force platform data in the analysis. Additionally, study design and quality was independently examined. In Part 2, the three common methodologies identified were used to analyze a neutral pool of data to determine if any variance existed. Results: For Part 1, a total of 19 studies met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis determined three methods of phase identification used in the literature from which to extract force-time variables. In Part 2, a one-way analysis of variance and Scheffe's post-hoc tests showed significant differences ( p < 0.01) for force-time variables (eccentric phase time, concentric phase time, time to peak force, rate of force development) between methods. Conclusion: The results demonstrate that three common methods exist for determination of the VJ phases from force platform data. Consequently, each produce different values for force-time variables when used on a neutral data pool. There is a clear need for a robust agreed method for VJ analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Knee injuries are prevalent among a variety of competitive sports and can impact an athlete's ability to continue to participate in their sport or, in the worst case, end an athlete's career. Objective: The aim was to evaluate biomechanics associated with both patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries (in sports involving landing, change in direction, or rapid deceleration) across the three time points frequently reported in the literature: pre-injury, at the time of injury, and following injury. Methods: A search of the literature was conducted for research evaluating biomechanics associated with ACL injury and PFPS. The Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, EBSCO, PubMed, and CINAHL databases, to March 2015, were searched, and journal articles focused on ACL injuries and PFPS in sports that met the inclusion criteria were reviewed. The search methodology was created with the intent of extracting case-control, case, and cohort studies of knee injury in athletic populations. The search strategy was restricted to only full-text articles published in English. These articles were included in the review if they met all of the required selection criteria. The following inclusion criteria were used: (1) The study must report lower extremity biomechanics in one of the following settings: (a) a comparison of currently injured and uninjured participants, (b) a prospective study evaluating risk factors for injury, or (c) a study reporting on the injury event itself. (2) The study must include only currently active participants who were similar at baseline (i.e. healthy, high school level basketball players currently in-season) and include biomechanical analysis of either landing, change in direction, or rapid deceleration. (3) The study must include currently injured participants. The studies were graded on the basis of quality, which served as an indication of risk of bias. An adapted version of the 'Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology' (STROBE) guidelines was used to rate observational research. Results: Fifteen journal articles focusing on ACL injuries and PFPS in sports met the inclusion criteria. These included three associated with both ACL injuries and PFPS across multiple time points. There was limited evidence for an association between ankle biomechanics and knee injury, with only one ACL injury study identifying decreased plantar flexion in association with injury. Limitations: Only prospective studies can determine biomechanical risk factors associated with ACL injuries and PFPS. Case studies and case-control studies do not allow for the determination of risk factors associated with both ACL injuries and PFPS as there is no certainty regarding the presence of the observed biomechanics prior to the onset of injury. Further, each study design has its own set of limitations. Lastly, the majority of the studies included in this review had adult female participants. Conclusion: By evaluating several different study designs looking at knee injuries during high-risk manoeuvres, we were able to obtain a holistic perspective of biomechanics associated with PFPS and ACL injuries. Looking at different biomechanical research approaches allowed us to assess not only the mechanism of injury, but also to look for commonalities in biomechanics (in particular, altered frontal plane mechanics at the knee and altered sagittal plane mechanics at the knee and hip) between injured and uninjured participants pre-injury, at the time of injury, and following injury, to better understand potential causes of PFPS and ACL injury. Development of injury prevention programmes should focus on correcting these mechanics observed across the three time points during high-risk manoeuvres as this may help decrease the prevalence of ACL injury and PFPS. Programmes focusing not only on neuromuscular training, but also skill-specific training focused on correcting mechanics during these high-risk manoeuvres may be of greatest benefit regarding prevention. Future research should consider the impact of cumulative loading on knee injury risk. Additionally, better techniques for assessing mechanics in-game are needed in order to facilitate injury prevention and screening strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Snow sports (alpine skiing/snowboarding) would benefit from easily implemented and cost-effective injury prevention countermeasures that are effective in reducing injury rate and severity. Objective: For snow sports, to identify risk factors and to quantify evidence for effectiveness of injury prevention countermeasures. Methods: Searches of electronic literature databases to February 2014 identified 98 articles focused on snow sports that met the inclusion criteria and were subsequently reviewed. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) with 90 % confidence intervals (CIs) and inferences (percentage likelihood of benefit/harm) were calculated using data from 55 studies using a spreadsheet for combining independent groups with a weighting factor based on quality rating scores for effects. Results: More experienced skiers and snowboarders are more likely to sustain an injury as a result of jumps, while beginners sustain injuries primarily as a result of falls. Key risk factors that countermeasure interventions should focus on include, beginner skiers (OR 2.72; 90 % CI 2.15-3.44, 99 % most likely harmful), beginner snowboarders (OR 2.66; 90 % CI 2.08-3.40, 99 % harmful), skiers/snowboarders who rent snow equipment (OR 2.58; 90 % CI 1.98-3.37, 99 % harmful) and poor visibility due to inclement weather (OR 2.69; 90 % CI 1.43-5.07, 97 % harmful). Effective countermeasures include helmets for skiers/snowboarders to prevent head injuries (OR 0.58; 90 % CI 0.51-0.66, 99 % most likely beneficial), and wrist guards for snowboarders to prevent wrist injuries (OR 0.33; 90 % CI 0.23-0.47, 99 % beneficial). Discussion: The review identified key risk factors for snow-sport injuries and evaluated the evidence for the effectiveness of existing injury prevention countermeasures in recreational (general public use of slopes, not racing) snow sports using a Haddon's matrix conceptual framework for injury causation (host/snow-sport participant, agent/mechanism and environment/community). Conclusion: Best evidence for the effectiveness of injury prevention countermeasures in recreational snow sports was for the use of helmets and wrist guards and to address low visibility issues via weather reports and signage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Concussion literature and treatment guidelines are inconclusive regarding the role of sex in symptom reporting at baseline and post-concussion. Although empirical evidence is lacking, it is generally regarded that females have a more severe symptomatic presentation than males at all time-points on the concussion spectrum. Objectives: Our objective was to determine whether differences exist between males and females at baseline (pre-season/before concussion) or post-concussion for self-reported (1) prevalence of individual symptoms and (2) total symptom scores in high school and college athletes. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational cohort studies; level of evidence, 1. Methods: A computerized search of the PubMed, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, and Scopus databases was performed. Meta-analysis Of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) guidelines were followed. Criteria for inclusion were (1) self-report of symptoms at any time within the concussion spectrum, including baseline and after concussion, (2) study sample included high school and/or collegiate athletes aged 12-26 years, (3) concussions occurred during participation in sport, and (4) symptom reporting was separated by sex. The Quality Assessment Tool for Cohort Studies, Q-Coh, was utilized for quality assessment. Results: Twenty-one studies met the criteria for inclusion: seventeen had good quality and four, acceptable quality. At baseline, females had significantly higher odds than males of reporting the individual symptoms of vision/hearing problems, headache/migraine, difficulty concentrating, energy/sleep disturbances, and emotional disturbances. Post-concussion, only one symptom demonstrated significant differences between males and females, with females demonstrating lower odds of reporting confusion than males. Statistically, at baseline and post-concussion, females had significantly higher total symptom scores on the Post-Concussion Scale (PCS) and the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 2 (SCAT2), but when the standard mean difference was interpreted after back-transformation, these results were clinically insignificant. Conclusions: The symptomatic presentation of males and females, most notably the prevalence of specific symptoms, is very divergent. Females had higher total symptom scores at baseline and post-concussion, however, clinically this cannot be interpreted as a meaningful difference. It is possible that these differences can be explained by normal hormonal changes associated with the menstrual cycle. The implications of these findings are that symptomatic presentation during an individual female's menstrual cycle needs to be taken into consideration post-concussion when making return-to-play decisions, as returning to a completely asymptomatic level may not be a reasonable expectation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Speed skating is an intriguing sport to study from different perspectives due to the peculiar way of motion and the multiple determinants for performance. This review aimed to identify what is known on (long-track) speed skating, and which individual characteristics determine speed skating performance. A total of 49 studies were included. Based on a multidimensional performance model, person-related performance characteristics were categorized in anthropometrical, technical, physiological, tactical, and psychological characteristics. Literature was found on anthropometry, technique, physiology, and tactics. However, psychological studies were clearly under-represented. In particular, the role of self-regulation might deserve more attention to further understand mechanisms relevant for optimal performance and for instance pacing. Another remarkable finding was that the technically/biomechanically favourable crouched skating technique (i.e. small knee and trunk angle) leads to a physiological disadvantage: a smaller knee angle may increase the deoxygenation of the working muscles. This is an important underlying aspect for the pacing tactics in speed skating. Elite speed skaters need to find the optimal balance between obtaining a fast start and preventing negative technical adaptations later on in the race by distributing their available energy over the race in an optimal way. More research is required to gain more insight into how this impacts on the processes of fatigue and coordination during speed skating races. This can lead to a better understanding on how elite speed skaters can maintain the optimal technical characteristics throughout the entire race, and how they can adapt their pacing to optimize all identified aspects that determine performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The promotion of sport and physical activity (PA) for children is widely recommended to support a healthy lifestyle, but being engaged in sport bears the risk of sustaining injuries. Injuries, in turn, can lead to a reduction in current and future involvement in PA and, therefore, may negatively affect future health as well as quality of life. Thus, sports injury prevention is of particular importance in youth. Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to quantify the effectiveness of exercise-based injury prevention programs in child and adolescent sport in general, and with respect to different characteristics of the target group, injury prevention program, and outcome variables. Data Sources: An Internet-based literature search was conducted in six databases (CINAHL, Cochrane, EMBASE, ISI Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus) using the following search terms with Boolean conjunction: (sport injur* OR athletic injur* OR sport accident*) AND (prevent* OR prophylaxis OR avoidance) AND (child* OR adolescent OR youth). Study Selection: Randomized controlled trials and controlled intervention studies in organized sport, published in English in a peer-reviewed journal, analyzing the effects of an exercise-based injury prevention program in athletes younger than 19 years of age. Data Extraction: Two reviewers evaluated eligibility and methodological quality. Main outcome extracted was the rate ratio (RR). Statistical analyses were conducted using the inverse-variance random effects model. Results: Twenty-one trials, conducted on a total of 27,561 athletes (median age 16.7 years [range 10.7-17.8]), were included. The overall RR was 0.54 (95 % CI 0.45-0.67) [ p < 0.001]. Girls profited more from injury prevention than boys ( p = 0.05). Both prevention programs with a focus on specific injuries (RR 0.48 [95 % CI 0.37-0.63]) and those aiming at all injuries (RR 0.62 [95 % CI 0.48-0.81]) showed significant reduction effects. Pre-season and in-season interventions were similarly beneficial ( p = 0.93). Studies on programs that include jumping/plyometric exercises showed a significant better ( p = 0.002) injury preventive effect (RR 0.45 [95 % CI 0.35-0.57], Z = 6.35, p < 0.001) than studies without such exercises (RR 0.74 [95 % CI 0.61-0.90], Z = 3.03, p = 0.002). Conclusions: The results provide good evidence and clearly demonstrate beneficial effects of exercise-based injury prevention programs in youth sports as they can result in statistically significant and practically relevant injury reduction. In particular, multimodal programs including jumping/plyometric exercises can be recommended. However, there is a considerable lack of data for children (under 14 years of age) and for individual sports in general. Future research should include these groups and focus on the effect of specific exercises and compliance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Knee joint mechanics during sidestepping are associated with anterior cruciate ligament injury. Unplanned sidestepping more closely emulates game scenarios when compared with planned sidestepping by limiting decision time, increasing knee loading and challenging the integrity of soft-tissue structures in the knee. It is important to quantify the loads that may challenge the integrity of the knee during planned and unplanned sidestepping. Objective: Our objective was to review literature on knee mechanics during planned and unplanned phases of sidestepping. Data sources: PubMed, CINAHL, MEDLINE (EBSCO), SPORTDiscus and Web of Science were searched using the terms knee mechanics OR knee kine*, AND plan*, unplan*, anticipat*, unanticipat*, side*, cut* or chang*. Study selection: A systematic approach was used to evaluate 4,629 records. Records were excluded when not available in English, only available in abstract of conference proceedings, not involving a change-of-direction sidestep, not comparing planned and unplanned or maintaining a running velocity greater than 2 m s. Data extraction: Included studies were evaluated independently by two authors using a custom-designed methodological quality assessment derived from the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale and then confirmed by a third author. Data synthesis: Only six studies met the inclusion criteria and were retained for meta-analysis. Magnitude-based inferences were used to assess the standardised effect of the differences between planned and unplanned sidestepping. Knee angles and knee moments were extracted and reported for flexion/extension, abduction/adduction and internal/external rotation for initial contact, weight acceptance, peak push-off and final push-off phases of sidestepping. Results: For kinematic variables, unplanned sidestepping produced a wide range of small to large increases in knee extension angles, small and moderate increases in knee abduction angles and a small increase in internal rotation angle relative to planned sidestepping during the sidestepping manoeuvre. For kinetic variables, unplanned sidestepping produced mostly small (small to large) increases in knee flexor moments, small to moderate increases in knee abductor moments and mostly moderate (small to large) increases in internal rotator moments relative to planned sidestepping. Limitations: Approach velocity constraints during the sidestepping manoeuvre were lifted due to the low number of eligible studies. The varying approach velocities included (ranging from 3.0 to 5.5 m s) may impact the kinematic and kinetic variables examined in this review. Conclusions: Differences in knee mechanics between planned and unplanned sidestepping exist. The most substantial effects occurred during the weight acceptance phase of sidestepping. It seems that biomechanical factors commonly associated with anterior cruciate ligament injury risk are affected the most during the loading phase compared with peak push-off; made evident in the coronal (abductor) and transverse (internal rotator) knee kinetic data presented in this review. The authors of this review propose a rationale for the incorporation of unplanned sport tasks in the development of anterior cruciate ligament injury screening and in prophylactic training programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Skeletal muscle plays an important role in maintaining the stability of the lumbar region. However, there is conflicting evidence regarding the effects of exercise on trunk muscle morphology. Objective: To systematically review the literature on the effects of exercise training on lower trunk muscle morphology to determine the comparative effectiveness of different exercise interventions. Data Source and Study Selection: A systematic search strategy was conducted in the following databases: PubMed, SportDiscus, CINAHL, the Cochrane Library and PEDro. We included full, peer-reviewed, prospective longitudinal studies, including randomized controlled trials and single-group designs, such as pre- to post-intervention and crossover studies, reporting on the effect of exercise training on trunk muscle morphology. Study Appraisal and Synthesis: Study quality was assessed with the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. We classified each exercise intervention into four categories, based on the primary exercise approach: motor control, machine-based resistance, non-machine-based resistance or cardiovascular. Treatment effects were estimated using within-group standardized mean differences (SMDs). Results: The systematic search identified 1,911 studies; of which 29 met our selection criteria: motor control ( n = 12), machine-based resistance ( n = 10), non-machine-based resistance ( n = 5) and cardiovascular ( n = 2). Fourteen studies (48 %) reported an increase in trunk muscle size following exercise training. Among positive trials, the largest effects were reported by studies testing combined motor control and non-machine-based resistance exercise (SMD [95 % CI] = 0.66 [0.06 to 1.27] to 3.39 [2.80 to 3.98]) and machine-based resistance exercise programmes (SMD [95 % CI] = 0.52 [0.01 to 1.03] to 1.79 [0.87 to 2.72]). Most studies investigating the effects of non-machine-based resistance exercise reported no change in trunk muscle morphology, with one study reporting a medium effect on trunk muscle size (SMD [95 % CI] = 0.60 [0.03 to 1.16]). Cardiovascular exercise interventions demonstrated no effect on trunk muscle morphology (SMD [95 % CI] = −0.16 [−1.14 to 0.81] to 0.09 [−0.83 to 1.01]). Limitations: We excluded studies published in languages other than English, and therefore it is possible that the results of relevant studies are not represented in this review. There was large clinical heterogeneity between the included studies, which prevented data synthesis. Among the studies included in this review, common sources of potential bias were random sequence generation, allocation concealment and blinding. Finally, the details of the exercise parameters were poorly reported in most studies. Conclusion: Approximately half of the included studies reported an increase in lower trunk muscle size following participation in an exercise programme. Among positive trials, studies involving motor control exercises combined with non-machine-based resistance exercise, as well as machine-based resistance exercises, demonstrated medium to large effects on trunk muscle size. Most studies examining the effect of non-machine-based resistance exercise and all studies investigating cardiovascular exercise reported no effect on trunk muscle morphology. However, these results should be interpreted with caution because of the substantial risk of bias and suboptimal reporting of exercise details in the included studies. Additional research, using methods ensuring a low risk of bias, are required to further elucidate the effects of exercise on trunk muscle morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research into the nature of overuse Achilles tendon injuries is extensive, yet uncertainty remains around how to identify athletes susceptible to Achilles tendon injury. Objective: To identify the strength of evidence for biomechanical risk factors associated with Achilles tendon injuries. Research Methods: SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Web of Science and PubMed were searched for Achilles tendon injury risk factors and biomechanical measures which are altered in runners with Achilles tendon injuries, excluding ruptures. Fifteen articles were included in the analysis. Results: Two variables, high vertical forces and high arch, showed strong evidence for reduced injury risk. High propulsive forces and running on stiffer surfaces may also be protective. Only one biomechanical variable, high braking force, showed clear evidence for increasing Achilles injury risk. Discussion: Gait retraining to direct the centre of mass further forward to reduce high braking force could be useful in decreasing the risk of Achilles injury. The majority of biomechanical risk factors examined showed unclear results, which is likely due to the multifactorial nature of Achilles overuse injuries. Many risk factors are related to how the athlete's body interacts with the environment during gait, including ground reaction forces, muscle activity both prior to landing and immediately post ground contact, and joint motion throughout stance. Conclusion: Multiple risk factors have been associated with the development of Achilles tendon injuries in running athletes but most effects remain unclear. Advice for athletes recovering from Achilles tendon injuries could include avoiding soft surfaces and reducing the pace of recovery runs. Orthotic intervention could assist athletes with low arches but modification of pronation should be viewed with caution. Strength training and gait retraining could be beneficial for reducing injury risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objective: Skeletal muscle wasting resulting in reduced muscular strength and health-related quality of life (HR-QOL) is common in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and may be reversed with progressive resistance training (PRT). Therefore, we systematically assessed the effect of PRT on measures of skeletal muscle hypertrophy, muscular strength and HR-QOL in this cohort to inform clinical practice and guidelines. Design: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis. Inclusion Criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that investigated the independent effect of PRT (>6 weeks) on measures of skeletal muscle hypertrophy [muscle mass or cross-sectional area (CSA)], muscular strength and/or HR-QOL in adults with CKD. Data Extraction and Analysis: The standardised mean difference (SMD) from each study was pooled to produce an overall estimate of effect and associated 95 % confidence interval (95 % CI) between treatment and control groups on primary outcomes. Results: Seven RCTs in 271 patients with Stage 3-5 CKD yielded seven studies on muscular strength ( N = 249), six studies on total body muscle mass ( N = 200) and six studies on HR-QOL ( N = 223). PRT significantly improved standardised muscular strength [SMD 1.15 (95 % CI 0.80-1.49)] and HR-QOL [SMD 0.83 (95 % CI 0.51-1.16)], but not total body muscle mass [SMD 0.29 (95 % CI −0.27 to 0.86)] in our primary analysis. However, secondary analysis of six studies showed that PRT induced significant muscle hypertrophy of the lower extremities (leg mass, or mid-thigh or quadriceps CSA) [SMD 0.43 (95 % CI 0.11-0.76)], a pertinent analysis given that most studies implemented lower-body PRT only. Conclusions: Robust evidence from RCTs indicates that PRT can induce skeletal muscle hypertrophy and increase muscular strength and HR-QOL outcomes in men and women with CKD. Therefore, clinical practice guidelines should be updated to inform clinicians on the benefits of PRT in this cohort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Resistance and aerobic exercises are both recommended as effective treatments for people with type 2 diabetes. However, the optimum type of exercise for the disease remains to be determined to inform clinical decision-making and facilitate personalized exercise prescription. Objectives: Our objective was to investigate whether resistance exercise is comparable to aerobic exercise in terms of effectiveness and safety in people with type 2 diabetes. Data sources: PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, and SPORTdiscus were systematically searched up to March 2013. The reference lists of eligible studies and relevant reviews were also checked. Study Selection: We used the following criteria to select studies for inclusion in the review: (i) the study was a randomized controlled trial; (ii) the participants were people with type 2 diabetes aged 18 years or more; (iii) the trial compared resistance exercise with aerobic exercise for a duration of at least 8 weeks, with pre-determined frequency, intensity, and duration; and (iv) the trial provided relevant data on at least one of the following: glycaemic control, blood lipids, anthropometric measures, blood pressure, fitness, health status, and adverse events. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: The assessment of study quality was based on the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. For effectiveness measures, differences (resistance group minus aerobic group) in the changes from baseline with the two exercises were combined, using a random-effects model wherever possible. For adverse events, the relative risks (resistance group vs. aerobic group) were combined. Results: Twelve trials ( n = 626) were included. Following the exercise interventions, there was a greater reduction of glycosylated hemoglobin with aerobic exercise than with resistance exercise (difference 0.18 % (1.97 mmol/mol), 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.01, 0.36). This difference became non-significant with sensitivity analysis ( p = 0.14). The differences in changes from baseline were also statistically significant for body mass index (difference 0.22, 95 % CI 0.06, 0.39), peak oxygen consumption (difference −1.84 mL/kg/min, 95 % CI −3.07, −0.62), and maximum heart rate (difference 3.44 beats per minute, 95 % CI 2.49, 4.39). Relative risks for adverse events (all) and serious adverse events were 1.17 (95 % CI 0.77, 1.79) and 0.89 (95 % CI 0.18, 4.39), respectively. Limitations: Most included trials were short term (8 weeks to 6 months), and seven had important methodological limitations. Additionally, the meta-analyses for some of the secondary outcomes had a small number of participants or substantial statistical heterogeneity. Conclusions: Although differences in some diabetic control and physical fitness measures between resistance exercise and aerobic exercise groups reached statistical significance, there is no evidence that they are of clinical importance. There is also no evidence that resistance exercise differs from aerobic exercise in impact on cardiovascular risk markers or safety. Using one or the other type of exercise for type 2 diabetes may be less important than doing some form of physical activity. Future long-term studies focusing on patient-relevant outcomes are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although a series of meta-analyses demonstrated neuromuscular training (NMT) is an effective intervention to reduce anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in female athletes, the potential existence of a dosage effect remains unknown. Objective: Our objective was to systematically review previously published clinical trials and evaluate potential dosage effects of NMT for ACL injury reduction in female athletes. Design: This study took the form of a meta- and sub-group analysis. Setting: The keywords 'knee', 'anterior cruciate ligament', 'ACL', 'prospective', 'neuromuscular', 'training', 'female', and 'prevention' were utilized in PubMed and EBSCO host for studies published between 1995 and May 2012. Participants: Inclusion criteria set for studies in the current analysis were (i) recruited female athletes as subjects, (ii) documented the number of ACL injuries, (iii) employed an NMT intervention aimed to reduce ACL injuries, (iv) had a control group, (v) used a prospective control trial design, and (vi) provided NMT session duration and frequency information. Main outcome measures: The number of ACL injuries and female athletes in each group (control and intervention) were compared based on duration, frequency, and volume of NMT via odds ratios (ORs). Results: A total of 14 studies were reviewed. Analyses that compared the number of ACL injuries with short versus long NMT duration showed greater ACL injury reduction in female athletes who were in the long NMT duration group (OR 0.35, 95 % CI 0.23-0.53, p = 0.001) than in those in the short NMT duration group (OR 0.61, 95 % CI 0.41-0.90, p = 0.013). Analyses that compared single versus multi NMT frequency indicated greater ACL injury reduction in multi NMT frequency (OR 0.35, 95 % CI 0.23-0.53, p = 0.001) compared with single NMT frequency (OR 0.62, 95 % CI 0.41-0.94, p = 0.024). Combining the duration and frequency of NMT programs, an inverse dose-response association emerged among low (OR 0.66, 95 % CI 0.43-0.99, p = 0.045), moderate (OR 0.46, 95 % CI 0.21-1.03, p = 0.059), and high (OR 0.32, 95 % CI 0.19-0.52, p = 0.001) NMT volume categories. Conclusions: The inverse dose-response association observed in the subgroup analysis suggests that the higher the NMT volume, the greater the prophylactic effectiveness of the NMT program and increased benefit in ACL injury reduction among female athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competitive swimming has a long history and is currently one of the largest Olympic sports, with 16 pool events. Several aspects separate swimming from most other sports such as (i) the prone position; (ii) simultaneous use of arms and legs for propulsion; (iii) water immersion (i.e. hydrostatic pressure on thorax and controlled respiration); (iv) propulsive forces that are applied against a fluctuant element; and (v) minimal influence of equipment on performance. Competitive swimmers are suggested to have specific anthropometrical features compared with other athletes, but are nevertheless dependent on physiological adaptations to enhance their performance. Swimmers thus engage in large volumes of training in the pool and on dry land. Strength training of various forms is widely used, and the energetic systems are addressed by aerobic and anaerobic swimming training. The aim of the current review was to report results from controlled exercise training trials within competitive swimming. From a structured literature search we found 17 controlled intervention studies that covered strength or resistance training, assisted sprint swimming, arms-only training, leg-kick training, respiratory muscle training, training the energy delivery systems and combined interventions across the aforementioned categories. Nine of the included studies were randomized controlled trials. Among the included studies we found indications that heavy strength training on dry land (one to live repetitions maximum with pull-downs for three sets with maximal effort in the concentric phase) or sprint swimming with resistance towards propulsion (maximal pushing with the arms against fixed points or pulling a perforated bowl) may be efficient for enhanced performance, and may also possibly have positive effects on stroke mechanics. The largest effect size (ES) on swimming performance was found in 50 m freestyle after a dry-land strength training regimen of maximum six repetitions across three sets in relevant musclegroups (ES 1.05), and after a regimen of resistedand assisted-sprint training with elastic surgical tubes (ES 1.21). Secondly, several studies suggest that high training volumes do not pose any immediate advantage over lower volumes (with higher intensity) for swim performance. Overall, very few studies were eligible for the current review although the search strategy was broad and fairly liberal. The included studies predominantly involved freestyle swimming and, overall, there seems to be more questions than answers within intervention-based competitive swimming research. We believe that this review may encourage other researchers to pursue the interesting topics within the physiology of competitive swimming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health problem that affects an estimated 1.7 million Australians. Patients with CKD commonly progress to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) requiring dialysis and/or kidney transplantation. They are at high risk of cardiovascular disease and many die from this prior to reaching ESKD. Few therapies are available to slow CKD progression and reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The benefit of exercise training has been well demonstrated in a range of disease conditions including ESKD and was recently highlighted by a systematic review in haemodialysis patients and a recent Cochrane review of all stages of CKD. However, the effects of exercise training in patients with CKD have not been extensively investigated. Our systematic search of the literature found only ten clinical trials in this area. The aim of this review is to review these studies, and to discuss the findings, safety considerations and suggest future areas of research. Overall, the majority of the studies are small, non-randomized, non-controlled trials. They have found that exercise training can increase exercise capacity, improve muscle strength and function, decrease blood pressure, and improve inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers. The effects of exercise training on kidney function, cardiovascular disease and quality of life are unknown. Studies are needed to answer these questions and develop evidence-based exercise training guidelines for individuals with CKD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerobic fitness is considered to be an important marker of current health and even a predictor of future health. The aim of this study was to systematically analyse the available scientific information on temporal changes in maximal long-distance running performance (a widely and long-used marker of aerobic fitness) of Asian children. A systematic review of the scientific literature was undertaken to locate studies explicitly reporting on temporal changes (spanning a minimum of 5 years) in maximal long-distance running of apparently healthy (free from known disease or injury) Asian children aged 9-17 years. Studies were located up to October 2010 via computerized searching of bibliographical databases, reference list searching and personal communication with international experts. Temporal changes were analysed at the country by sex by age by test level using best-fitting linear or polynomial regression models relating the year of testing to long-distance running performances expressed as average running speeds. Changes in means were expressed as percent changes and as standardized effect sizes. Eight studies reporting temporal changes in the long-distance running performance of 23 897 571 children aged 9-17 years from four Asian countries over the period 1964-2009 were included. Overall, there was a large decline in long-distance running performance equivalent to -16.6±1.3% (mean change±95% confidence interval) or -1.2±0.1 standard deviations. Temporal changes were generally consistent for different sex and age groups, but not for different countries, with large declines observed for children from China and the Republic of Korea, small declines for children from Japan and very small declines for children from Singapore. There is overwhelming evidence of meaningful declines in the maximal long-distance running performance of Asian children in recent decades, which are probably caused by a network of social, behavioural, physical, psychosocial and physiological factors. These declines highlight the need for regular surveillance of Asian children's health-related fitness and proactive public health strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]