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Introduction: Glacier ice algae, mainly Ancylonema alaskanum and Ancylonema nordenskiöldi, bloom on Greenland Ice Sheet bare ice surfaces. They significantly decrease surface albedo due to their purple-brown pigmentation, thus increasing melt. Little is known about their metabolic adaptation and factors controlling algal growth dynamics and pigment formation. A challenge in obtaining such data is the necessity of melting samples, which delays preservation and introduces bias to metabolomic analysis. There is a need to evaluate the physiological response of algae to melting and establish consistent sample processing strategies for metabolomics of ice microbial communities. Objectives: To address the impact of sample melting procedure on metabolic characterization and establish a processing and analytical workflow for endometabolic profiling of glacier ice algae. Methods: We employed untargeted, high-resolution mass spectrometry and tested the effect of sample melt temperature (10, 15, 20 °C) and processing delay (up to 49 h) on the metabolome and lipidome, and complemented this approach with cell counts (FlowCam), photophysiological analysis (PAM) and diversity characterization. Results and Conclusion: We putatively identified 804 metabolites, with glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids and fatty acyls being the most prominent superclasses (> 50% of identified metabolites). Among the polar metabolome, carbohydrates and amino acid-derivatives were the most abundant. We show that 8% of the metabolome is affected by melt duration, with a pronounced decrease in betaine membrane lipids and pigment precursors, and an increase in phospholipids. Controlled fast melting at 10 °C resulted in the highest consistency, and is our recommendation for future supraglacial metabolomics studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blooms of pigmented algae darken the surface of glaciers and ice sheets, thereby enhancing solar energy absorption and amplifying ice and snow melt. The impacts of algal pigment and community composition on surface darkening are still poorly understood. Here, we characterise glacier ice and snow algal pigment signatures on snow and bare ice surfaces and study their role in photophysiology and energy absorption on three glaciers in Southeast Greenland. Purpurogallin and astaxanthin esters dominated the glacier ice and snow algal pigment pools (mass ratios to chlorophyll a of 32 and 56, respectively). Algal biomass and pigments impacted chromophoric dissolved organic matter concentrations. Despite the effective absorption of astaxanthin esters at wavelengths where incoming irradiance peaks, the cellular energy absorption of snow algae was 95% lower than anticipated from their pigmentation, due to pigment packaging. The energy absorption of glacier ice algae was consequently ~ 5 × higher. On bare ice, snow algae may have locally contributed up to 13% to total biological radiative forcing, despite contributing 44% to total biomass. Our results give new insights into the impact of algal community composition on bare ice energy absorption and biomass accumulation during snow melt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glaciers represent a unique inventory of microbial genetic diversity and a record of evolution. The Tibetan Plateau contains the largest area of low-latitude glaciers and is particularly vulnerable to global warming. By sequencing 85 metagenomes and 883 cultured isolates from 21 Tibetan glaciers covering snow, ice and cryoconite habitats, we present a specialized glacier microbial genome and gene catalog to archive glacial genomic and functional diversity. This comprehensive Tibetan Glacier Genome and Gene (TG2G) catalog includes 883 genomes and 2,358 metagenome-assembled genomes, which represent 968 candidate species spanning 30 phyla. The catalog also contains over 25 million non-redundant protein-encoding genes, the utility of which is demonstrated by the exploration of secondary metabolite biosynthetic potentials, virulence factor identification and global glacier metagenome comparison. The TG2G catalog is a valuable resource that enables enhanced understanding of the structure and functions of Tibetan glacial microbiomes. The bacterial life in glaciers is comprehensively catalogued and analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet is a leading cause of land-ice mass loss and cryosphere-attributed sea level rise. Blooms of pigmented glacier ice algae lower ice albedo and accelerate surface melting in the ice sheet's southwest sector. Although glacier ice algae cause up to 13% of the surface melting in this region, the controls on bloom development remain poorly understood. Here we show a direct link between mineral phosphorus in surface ice and glacier ice algae biomass through the quantification of solid and fluid phase phosphorus reservoirs in surface habitats across the southwest ablation zone of the ice sheet. We demonstrate that nutrients from mineral dust likely drive glacier ice algal growth, and thereby identify mineral dust as a secondary control on ice sheet melting. Melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet—a threat for sea level rise—is accelerated by ice algal blooms. Here the authors find a link between mineral phosphorus and glacier algae, indicating that dust-derived nutrients aid bloom development, thereby impacting ice sheet melting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacteriophage genomes rapidly evolve via mutation and horizontal gene transfer to counter evolving bacterial host defenses; such arms race dynamics should lead to divergence between phages from similar, geographically isolated ecosystems. However, near-identical phage genomes can reoccur over large geographical distances and several years apart, conversely suggesting many are stably maintained. Here, we show that phages with near-identical core genomes in distant, discrete aquatic ecosystems maintain diversity by possession of numerous flexible gene modules, where homologous genes present in the pangenome interchange to create new phage variants. By repeatedly reconstructing the core and flexible regions of phage genomes from different metagenomes, we show a pool of homologous gene variants co-exist for each module in each location, however, the dominant variant shuffles independently in each module. These results suggest that in a natural community, recombination is the largest contributor to phage diversity, allowing a variety of host recognition receptors and genes to counter bacterial defenses to co-exist for each phage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, cyanobacterium isolate CHS1 isolated from Hopar glacier, Pakistan, was analyzed for the first time for cell membrane fatty acids and production of pigments. Sequencing of the 16-23S intergenetic region confirmed identification of the isolate CHS1 as Nodularia spumigena. All chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography and experiments to test tolerance against a range of physico-chemical conditions were conducted. Likewise, the fatty acid profile of the cell membrane CHS1 was analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. The cyanobacterium isolate CHS1 demonstrated tolerance to 8 g/L% NaCl, 35°C and pH 5–9. The characteristic polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) of isolate CHS1, C18:4, was observed in fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) extracted from the cell membrane. CHS1 was capable of producing saturated fatty acids (SFA) (e.g., C16:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (e.g., C18:1) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g., C20:5) in the cell membrane. In this study, we hypothesize that one mechanism of cold adaptation displayed by isolate CHS1 is the accumulation of high amounts of PUFA in the cell membrane. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ice sheets are currently ignored in global methane budgets1,2. Although ice sheets have been proposed to contain large reserves of methane that may contribute to a rise in atmospheric methane concentration if released during periods of rapid ice retreat3,4, no data exist on the current methane footprint of ice sheets. Here we find that subglacially produced methane is rapidly driven to the ice margin by the efficient drainage system of a subglacial catchment of the Greenland ice sheet. We report the continuous export of methane-supersaturated waters (CH4(aq)) from the ice-sheet bed during the melt season. Pulses of high CH4(aq) concentration coincide with supraglacially forced subglacial flushing events, confirming a subglacial source and highlighting the influence of melt on methane export. Sustained methane fluxes over the melt season are indicative of subglacial methane reserves that exceed methane export, with an estimated 6.3 tonnes (discharge-weighted mean; range from 2.4 to 11 tonnes) of CH4(aq) transported laterally from the ice-sheet bed. Stable-isotope analyses reveal a microbial origin for methane, probably from a mixture of inorganic and ancient organic carbon buried beneath the ice. We show that subglacial hydrology is crucial for controlling methane fluxes from the ice sheet, with efficient drainage limiting the extent of methane oxidation5 to about 17 per cent of methane exported. Atmospheric evasion is the main methane sink once runoff reaches the ice margin, with estimated diffusive fluxes (4.4 to 28 millimoles of CH4 per square metre per day) rivalling that of major world rivers6. Overall, our results indicate that ice sheets overlie extensive, biologically active methanogenic wetlands and that high rates of methane export to the atmosphere can occur via efficient subglacial drainage pathways. Our findings suggest that such environments have been previously underappreciated and should be considered in Earth's methane budget. Subglacially produced methane of microbial origin is flushed to the ice margin of the Greenland ice sheet by meltwater, contributing to a previously unaccounted for methane flux to the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Earth's cryosphere comprises those regions that are cold enough for water to turn into ice. Recent findings show that the icy realms of polar oceans, glaciers and ice sheets are inhabited by microorganisms of all three domains of life, and that temperatures below 0 °C are an integral force in the diversification of microbial life. Cold-adapted microorganisms maintain key ecological functions in icy habitats: where sunlight penetrates the ice, photoautotrophy is the basis for complex food webs, whereas in dark subglacial habitats, chemoautotrophy reigns. This Review summarizes current knowledge of the microbial ecology of frozen waters, including the diversity of niches, the composition of microbial communities at these sites and their biogeochemical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Darkening of parts of the Greenland ice sheet surface during the summer months leads to reduced albedo and increased melting. Here we show that heavily pigmented, actively photosynthesising microalgae and cyanobacteria are present on the bare ice. We demonstrate the widespread abundance of green algae in the Zygnematophyceae on the ice sheet surface in Southwest Greenland. Photophysiological measurements (variable chlorophyll fluorescence) indicate that the ice algae likely use screening mechanisms to downregulate photosynthesis when exposed to high intensities of visible and ultraviolet radiation, rather than non-photochemical quenching or cell movement. Using imaging microspectrophotometry, we demonstrate that intact cells and filaments absorb light with characteristic spectral profiles across ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, whereas inorganic dust particles typical for these areas display little absorption. Our results indicate that the phototrophic community growing directly on the bare ice, through their photophysiology, most likely have an important role in changing albedo, and subsequently may impact melt rates on the ice sheet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of highly active bacterial communities in cryoconite holes on three Arctic glaciers in Svalbard was investigated using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) of the 16S rRNA locus. Construction and sequencing of clone libraries allowed several members of these communities to be identified, with Proteobacteria being the dominant one, followed by Cyanobacteria and Bacteroidetes. T-RFLP data revealed significantly different communities in holes on the (cold) valley glacier Austre Brøggerbreen relative to two adjacent (polythermal) valley glaciers, Midtre Lovénbreen and Vestre Brøggerbreen. These population compositions correlate with differences in organic matter content, temperature and the metabolic activity of microbial communities concerned. No within-glacier spatial patterns were observed in the communities identified over the 2-year period and with the 1 km-spaced sampling. We infer that surface hydrology is an important factor in the development of cryoconite bacterial communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotopes ratios (δ13C and δ15N) were measured in primary producers and consumers of two bays with contrasting eutrophic conditions in the Patos Lagoon estuary, southern Brazil: the Justino bay, a more pristine ecosystem, and the Mangueira bay, a heavily polluted region that receives the Rio Grande city sewage and effluents of several industries. δ13C values of organisms collected in both subsystems were not different, but δ15N values had significant statistical differences, ca. 3.5‰ higher in the Mangueira bay. It is likely that primary producers and consumers in this subsystem are greatly influenced by higher nitrogen input due to domestic and industrial sewages. The stable isotope analysis also corroborated several trophic interactions previously established by gut content analysis, and due to its higher sensitivity, it was possible to better determine the contributions of different primary producers and detrital fractions to the consumers' diets. It was confirmed that plant detritus represents the main food source for most organisms. The stable isotope analysis also demonstrated that detritivorous benthic organisms in the same habitat have distinct diet compositions, with differential consumption of C3 and C4 plants. This technique showed that some consumers that eat detritus do not have in their stable isotopic signature any relationship with that of plants. It is likely that these consumers assimilate their carbon and nitrogen from other sources like microalgae or microorganisms that colonize decaying plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine sediment records suggest that episodes of major atmospheric CO2 drawdown during the last glacial period were linked to iron (Fe) fertilization of subantarctic surface waters. The principal source of this Fe is thought to be dust transported from southern mid-latitude deserts. However, uncertainty exists over contributions to CO2 sequestration from complementary Fe sources, such as the Antarctic ice sheet, due to the difficulty of locating and interrogating suitable archives that have the potential to preserve such information. Here we present petrographic, geochemical and microbial DNA evidence preserved in precisely dated subglacial calcites from close to the East Antarctic Ice-Sheet margin, which together suggest that volcanically-induced drainage of Fe-rich waters during the Last Glacial Maximum could have reached the Southern Ocean. Our results support a significant contribution of Antarctic volcanism to subglacial transport and delivery of nutrients with implications on ocean productivity at peak glacial conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor is presented in response to an article about the springtime darkening of the Greenland Ice Sheet since 2009 which is a consequence of an increased load of light-absorbing impurities in snow.