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While offensive words are found in the lexicons of the world’s languages and despite some of their similarities, offensive words are not cross-linguistically transferrable or translatable. Nevertheless, it is possible to sketch out some general linguistic properties and characteristics of offensive words across languages. As a matter of fact, offensive words themselves constitute only the lexical representation of offensive language, in terms of words or lexical items (e.g. whore, bitch in English). Offensive language may also be represented morphologically or syllabically, in affixes that offend (e.g. in Japanese, when offensive morphemes are attached to the verb fazakeru ‘to joke around’, modifying it, forming offensive predicates such as fazakeru na ‘don’t bullshit me!’ and fuzakeru na yo ‘don’t you fucking bullshit me!’) as well as syntactically or phrasally, and in phrases that offend (e.g. the offensive phrase, futu-ți Cristoșii ma-tii de cacat rânit cu lopata ‘fuck your mother’s Christ, you shit taken off with a shovel’).

Intraoperative mapping of the neural processes that support noun and verb production has generally focused on naming of objects and actions. Action naming has been proposed as a good complement to object naming for intraoperative language mapping. While action naming taps into similar language functions as object naming, the processing of verbs may also recruit partially different neural substrates and tap into morphosyntactic processes that are particularly relevant in everyday communication. In this chapter, we review the neural basis of object and action naming, long-term deficits in people who did not benefit from its intraoperative use, knowledge gained from lesion-symptom mapping, variations in the design of these tasks, functional improvement as a function of the type of mapping carried out, and some of the anatomo-functional knowledge we have from prior studies on awake mapping. Finally, we step back to situate action naming in two broader contexts: a subtype of verb processing on the one hand, and nonlinguistic knowledge of objects and actions more generally. Looking forward, there are many exciting questions to be pursued using action naming in an intraoperative context, and the clinical preparation afforded by awake language mapping holds tremendous potential to disclose new insights about the neural basis of nouns and verbs.

Whose Holy Land? or “Who owns the Holy Land?” is a question that has been asked time and again. Let us turn our attention to the history of the various possessors and the issue of property. But what do these terms mean? To whom do they refer? What is possession as opposed to property? This is an important distinction, as it is entirely possible that the possessors have frequently changed while the owners have not. The terms “possession” and “property” are often used interchangeably in everyday language. This use is not always accurate however. A quick look at the origins of the Latin, English and French terms will help us here. “Property” is something that is one’s own, something that one owns, while “possession” comes from the Latin verb “to sit”. One can sit on a chair that is not one’s own. Sitting simply expresses physical presence. But sitting on or possessing something is not the same as ownership or property.

Chapter 2 (The Irruption of Non-being: Being as Dynamis) is instead dedicated to the Sophist: the thesis guiding this chapter is that the definition of being as dynamis, which Plato proposes in this dialogue, is no more than the result of the confrontation, initiated in Theaetetus (the dialogue that temporally and structurally precedes the Sophist), with the problem of the incommensurable, which in the dialogue of the same name Theaetetus defines precisely as dynamis. Beginning with this consideration, the chapter develops some theoretical observations, above all at the linguistic level (the definition of logos as symploke, that is, the connection of noun and verb) and the ontological level (the formation of an ontology that introduces difference and movement to being), which acquires a peculiar significance only in light of this problematic background.

This chapter considers the history of the verb hack and the related noun hacker. The chapter offers a ‘social etymology’—an account of how the term has changed over time and how such changes re-reorient the word. The chapter considers the various ways in which the term hacker has been used in a range of different historical sources and contemporary films and television shows and how the current use of the term strategically draws together particular historical meanings to position hackers as a threat to both individual wellbeing and possibly capitalism itself.

This chapter discusses ontologies of language as a normative noun, a performative verb and a political marker of (un)belonging, highlighting the challenges caused by dominant discourses of linguistic essentialism. After that, it presents applied linguistics’ attempts at changing normative thinking about language through engaging with transdisciplinary conceptual lenses such as posthumansim, new materiality, affective feminist perspectives, and chronotopic contextualisations in order to develop expansive understandings of language with a performative view, as reflected in the term ‘languaging’.

Metaphoric expression is widespread and frequently used to convey emotions. When it comes to metaphor recognition and analysis, there are still not enough samples for these tasks. In this study, we target on recognizing verb metaphors and analyzing their emotions via data augmentation. To this end, we firstly propose a sentence reconstruction method to prune the dependency parsing tree, and thus alleviates the disturbances caused by the noise information. Then, the data augmentation strategies are proposed based on Seq2Seq model and the reconstructed sentence, which generate sufficient candidate samples after an effective quality evaluation. Finally, a proposed model is trained with the extended dataset, and it achieves the recognition and emotion analysis for metaphors. Experiments are conducted on Chinese and English metaphor corpus respectively, and results show that our proposed model has the best performance compared with the baseline methods.

Fictive motion, i.e., the figurative stative use of verbs of motion, has attracted much attention in cognitive linguistics as a paradigm case for how basic dynamic concepts are exploited figuratively in concept formation (Langacker 1986; Matsumoto 1996; Talmy 2000; Matlock 2004a, b inter alia). In this paper, we present a case study of the fictive motion reading of the German movement verb steigen ‘climb, rise’ and explore how it can be related to the various dynamic readings of the verb. In our account of steigen, which builds on Gamerschlag, Geuder & Petersen’s (2014) analysis of the dynamic readings of the verb, we contrast the different readings in terms of frames, i.e., recursive attribute-value structures in the sense of Barsalou (1992) and Petersen (2007/2015).

Consciousness is subject to every conceivable verb and adjective. It binds, it combines. It exposes objects and qualities, while seeming to integrate information with a neural contagion of prospects that differs from individual to individual, species to species. Fundamentally, consciousness remains an unknown aspect of Nature, notwithstanding the appearance of our apperceptive awareness, of consciousness of consciousness. With no clear remedy in sight, one possible way to come to terms with the unknowable is to work our way backwards from the apparent results of human consciousness, the eco-dynamic fallout of human interaction with its surroundings, the consequences of those interactions in the tangible world.

Living is a verb that takes shape in space. It is, moreover, contrary to what is thought, an experience linked to movement. This movement is made up of gestures, through which the dialectic between the “inside” and the “outside” is always staged. The mechanics of the ritual of living space passes through a path that goes from a relationship with the other that defines exteriority to a relationship with oneself that corresponds to the interior. The threshold definition was abruptly questioned with the pandemic interval. The rituality that defined spaces, the ergonomics of movement, the difference between public and private, have been radically diluted in an amalgam that forces us to review the concept of living inside a house but also “living ourselves”. The purpose of this paper is to analyze some of the consequences of the pandemic on the spatial and relational dynamics of living, on the concept of interior and exterior, on the idea of time and duration associated with living spaces.

This paper examines the grammaticalization of diao from a main verb to a resultative marker in Mandarin. Diao is a multifunctional word that has undergone a process of semantic evolution in its verbal meaning, from ‘to swing’, ‘to throw’, ‘to fall down’, to ‘to disappear’. At the time when it contracted the verbal sense of falling, it came to be used in the Predicate-Complement structure and the sequence V-diao emerged. As the scope of the collocating verb preceding diao extends, the senses of diao also become extended from ‘removal’ to ‘completion’ or ‘state change’. Diverse mechanisms such as metonymy, analogy, metaphor, generalization and the influence of Chinese southern dialects all contribute to the grammaticalization of diao. The development of diao is found to be in accordance with the development of aspectual markers in some other languages.

The Romance clitic se/si in reflexive, passive, and related constructions has been analyzed as a functional head/verbal inflection (Cuervo MC, Datives at large. PhD dissertation, MIT, 2003; Folli R, Harley H, Linguistic Inquiry 38:197–238, 2007) or as a pronominal argument (Raposo E, Uriagereka J, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 14:749–810, 1996; D’Alessandro R, Impersonal Si constructions. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 2007), or as both depending on type (Kempchinsky P, Teasing apart the middle. In Andolin gogoan/Homenaje a Andolin Eguzkitza, eds. Itziar Laka and Beatriz Fernandez, 532–547. University of the Basque Country Press, 2006). I show that Latin and Old Spanish se was within a DP argument as indicated by diagnostics of coordination, modification, and movement/interpolation. This changes in Middle Spanish, where se merges within a DP and moves as a D head. This reanalysis is supported by loss of interpolation and the development of the doubling of the tonic reflexive pronoun by se. Modern Spanish se is an inflectional morpheme, the realization of a Voice head. Following van Gelderen E, The linguistic cycle: Language change and the language faculty. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, I argue that se’s current status results from a subtype of the object agreement cycle which turns object pronouns into object agreement on the verb. The reflexive object cycle turns reflexive pronouns into valency marking inflection.

The clitic se in Spanish appears in a number of different constructions, including the reflexive, anticausative and antipassive. It even appears with certain unergative verbs. So far, a unified explanation for the polyfunctionality of se has remained elusive. In this paper, I propose that se functions as a verbalizer (see also Kallulli D, (Non-)canonical passives and reflexives. In Alexiadou A, Schafer F. Non-canonical passives. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 337–358, 2013) in two different domains. When it merges low, it functions to verbalize a nominal element and introduces an external argument. In this instance we see the clitic se in an unergative structure. In the second domain, the clitic merges higher and takes as its complement a Predicate Phrase (PredP) that contains in its specifier the derived position of the internal argument. This PredP semantically does not denote a predicate of events but a predicate of individuals. In this higher position, the clitic (re)verbalizes the structure, taking the predicate of individuals and creating a predicate of events. By creating a predicate of events, the verb can interact with tense and other verbal functional elements in the clause. The polyfunctionality of the clitic se results because of its verbalizing function.

Among other possible criteria, verbs are classified according to their valency. This is recognized in traditional grammar, which refers to verbs as transitive, intransitive, copulative, and so on. But the complexity is much greater, if we consider the great number of different constructions in which each verb can occur. In this chapter several classification criteria of verbs are discussed and exemplified.

This chapter argues that the ‘rheomodic language structure’ or ‘action language structure’ is an alternative approach to the question of being in both Western and African thought. The contention is that being can be studied by focusing on the verbal root of concepts. It is believed that this verbal root of words leads to a holistic and dynamic conception of being. This approach to the question of ‘being’ follows the tradition of Heraclitus who viewed ‘being’ as in a continuous flux, and it goes against the static conception of being in Parmenides. This dynamic conception of being is mainly represented by thinkers such as Bohm in Western philosophy and Ramose in African philosophy. The chapter also suggests a dynamic concept of being in the African context using the verb root –li in the Chichewa language.

The distinction between “theory” and “theorizing,” according to Swedish sociologist Richard Swedberg (2016), offers a simple lesson in Grammar 101. Whereas theory is a noun (or theories, a plural noun), theorizing functions as a verb. Theorizing is an action, a process, a dynamism whether by trial-and-error or accident, which produces a heightened or enlightened interpretation of a phenomenon under study (i.e., a theory). Swedberg’s attention to theorizing for the purposes of generating a theory is as much an intellectual exercise as it is a pedagogical one. “I use the term ‘theorizing’,” he (2016: 6) explains, “as a short-hand for a better understanding of how a theory is put together; how it is handled in empirical research–and how it can be taught in an effective manner.” To theorize properly, he continues, one must: observe; identify empirically supported facts; name the phenomenon indicated by those facts; draw on or develop a concept to aid in analysis of the named phenomenon; fine-tune the concept by introducing metaphors, analogies, or typologies; and craft an explanation. In this book, and with Swedberg’s how-to in mind, I theorize bioarchaeology.

This chapter examines the function of the armchair in Woolf’s stories as noun and verb. Beginning with ‘A Mark on the Wall’ (1917), the first piece of fiction in which Woolf forged her modernist style, it throws light on Woolf’s egalitarian treatment of subjects and objects. It considers both the armchair and story as routes to authentic being, reclaiming domestic space as a site of creative innovation and transformation, a place from which new types of awareness and understanding might be achieved. From the armchair, readers might challenge the most basic of assumptions to bring radical ideas into the everyday sphere, impelled by the humble, oblique sightline their low positioning affords, and a freshness of perception that is only accessible to the amateur.

This paper provides continuity with our previous work on the identification and classification of Arabic psychological verbs through lexicon-grammar tables. In this regard, we add transformational forms such as negation, passivization, and nominalization to enrich our lexicon grammar tables. However, these transformations link one sentence to another, keeping the same semantic material, such as أحب زيد ماري ‘Zaid loved Marie’ and its nominalized form أكن زيد حبا لماري ‘Zaid has love for Marie’. The two sentences share the same predicate (أحب ‘to love’) and the same arguments (زيد ,ماري; ‘Zaid, Marie’), even though their structure is different. We also extend our previous tool of recognizing Arabic psychological verbs in sentences that allowed us to detect those verbs in texts and corpora by transforming their lexicon-grammar tables into NooJ dictionaries and syntactic grammars. In this context, we create transformational grammars to make this tool more powerful by detecting the Arabic psychological verbs in texts in all their transformational forms.

This paper investigates the thematic types and derivations of subjects in Mandarin bei-passives. Based on an examination of the categorial status of bei discussed in the literature, we try a new approach by adopting Liu and Huang’s view that the mechanism of deriving bei-passives is argument raising (in which bei is a semi-lexical verb heading the Voice projection), and propose a simplified and unified account of bei-passives’ Experiencer and Possessor subjects, as well as their typical Patient subjects. Specifically, we propose that the high applicative gei proposed in Hsu and Qu can account structurally for the source of the Experiencer in bei-passives. We then present how the structure proposed in this paper accounts for Possessor related subjects in bei-passives, and explain the interpretations and the possible derivation of an extra implicit affected subject in bei-passives.

In Natural Language Processing, text classification involves the process of categorizing documents into organized groups. Classifiers are trained to analyze the documents and categorize them into groups based on pre-defined tags. In this paper, a framework has been devised to extract features from the text documents. The documents are preprocessed, tagged and then the features are extracted. Preprocessing includes removal of stop words, punctuations. Preprocessed Words were tagged under two categories, Noun and Verb. Tagging of words was based on morphophonemic rules pertaining to Tamil Language. Feature extraction is based on frequency of the occurrences of words tagged as Noun. Extraction of features through the proposed framework enhances dimensionality reduction of data considered for classification process.

Language-motor interaction is suggested by the involvement of motor areas in action-related language processing. In a double-dissociation paradigm we aimed to investigate motor cortical involvement in the processing of hand- and foot-related action verbs combined with manner adverbs. In two experiments using different tasks, subjects were instructed to respond with their hand or foot following the presentation of an adverb-verb combination. Experiment 1, which prompted reactions via color changes of the stimuli combined with a semantic decision, showed an influence of manner adverbs on response times. This was visible in faster responses following intensifying adverbs compared with attenuating adverbs. Additionally, an interaction between implied verb effector and response effector manifested in faster response times for matching verb-response conditions. Experiment 2, which prompted reactions directly by the adverb type (intensifying vs. attenuating), revealed an interaction between manner adverbs and response effector with faster hand responses following intensifying compared with attenuating adverbs. Additional electroencephalography (EEG) recordings in Experiment 2 revealed reduced beta-desynchronization for congruent verb-response conditions in the case of foot responses along with faster response times. Yet, a direct modulation of verb-motor priming by adverbs was not found. Taken together, our results indicate an influence of manner adverbs on the interplay of language processing and motor behavior. Results are discussed with respect to embodied cognition theories.

Verb is the core of a sentence. It can not only reflect the syntactic structure and semantic framework of the whole sentence, but also restrict the nominal elements which co-exist with them. They play a significant role in sentence. Verb-Object Collocation has received more and more attention owing to its high frequency, complexity and flexibility of using. Domestic researches on verb object collocation mainly focus on automatic recognition and construction of corresponding collocation knowledge base. Nevertheless, most of the existing Verb-Object Collocation knowledge base lacks semantic information and classification information. Thus, the application scenarios will be greatly limited. It cannot meet the semantic needs of natural language processing, either. In view of this situation, this paper deeply analyzes the semantic relationship of Verb-Object Collocation, and uses the related technology of knowledge graph to construct a Verb-Object Collocation Knowledge Graph, which obtains 40704 specific examples of Verb-Object Collocation and 20000 extraction templates of Verb-Object Collocation. At the same time, this paper constructs a Verb-Object Collocation Knowledge Graph to manage and maintain our knowledge through two parts: ontology layer and data layer. Finally, the effectiveness of the Verb-Object Collocation Knowledge Graph is verified on the task of entity recognition.

Under the guidance of cognitive semantics, this paper adopts an approach based on image schemas to analyze the meaning of the verb tuī (推) according to the research of Lakoff (1987) on the word over. The verb tuī can be divided into two sense branches: (1) To move the object or part of the object in the direction of force; (2) To cut or chop with a tool against the surface of the object. On this basis, we summarize 15 different image schemas. Next, this paper discusses the way the sense branches and how its variants are related (e.g.co-hyponymy analogue, specification and metonymy). Finally, the paper attains a radical-structured polysemous system of the verb tuī.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the diachronic evolution of the most typical ditransitive verb, give, and its competition against other word forms with the similar meaning. Statistics from the historical chronicles between the 6th and 15th century show the competing trends. The results demonstrate that in OE and ME, the set of ‘give’ verbs with Germanic origin all have the meaning of taking and holding in their etymology. The prolixity of the verb’s varied forms plays an important role in building its competitiveness.

The paper aims to account for the multiple interpretations of the Chinese negative degree adverb bushen (不甚). In Chongbian Guoyu Cidian (Revised Chinese Dictionary) (2015), it is defined as ‘not very’, however, in the CCL and BCC Modern Chinese corpora, we have found a few cases showing that bushen can only be interpreted as positive degree ‘very’. Using the extensive classical and modern Chinese data, we argue that the semantic change has undergone a process of analogy (cf. e.g. Harris and Campbell 1995; Fischer 2007; Traugott and Trousdale 2013), i.e., the use of positive degree of bushen was analogized to the extant positive degree adverb busheng (不胜). The semantic change has occurred when bushen was followed by an adjective or a verb conveying emotions, such as gǎnxie (感谢), which were the common collocations of the adverb busheng, e.g. busheng gǎnxie.

Study of auxiliaries from a morphological perspective is extremely interesting from the semantic and pragmatic points of view, and they still await detailed and careful study.This paper deals with the role played by auxiliaries in Kannada Morphology. Two kinds of auxiliaries are indicated in the Kannada language, namely, aspect auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries. These auxiliaries are useful information of derivative stems in Kannada verbs. Many of these aspect auxiliaries are used as verbalizers to derive verbs from nouns and verbs from adjectives. Auxiliaries play a very important role in Morphology of Dravidian languages like Kannada. They are useful in the complex verb formation process. Aspect markers have a major role in verb morphology. This paper explores the distribution of non-finite auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries as part of the morphological analyser in Standard Kannada. Auxiliaries form the basis for the formation of multiple stems in Morphology when they are not used separately like in the English language.

The present study investigates non-finite complement choice of the characterizing modal adjective prone in British and American English in the relevant subsections of the NOW Corpus. The objective is to inquire into the role of syntactic and semantic factors in the choice between infinitival and gerundial complement clauses with covert subjects at a time of significant variation between the two variants, i.e. the mid-2010s. A set of potentially explanatory factors, mainly syntactic and semantic, are investigated. The strongest predictors of complement choice appear to be semantic. Stativity, future reference, and repeatability of the complement situation are all highly significant predictors. The animacy, agentivity, and countability of the lower subject are likewise consequential. Within the syntactic domain, extraction contexts and propositional (rather than VP-internal) scope of the adjective are highly significant predictors. Lastly, the phonological complexity of the complement verb is also found to play a role in variant selection. British English turns out be more favorable to the gerundial complement than its colonial offshoot, and the difference is highly statistically significant.

In his later work Heidegger provides several, seemingly disparate determinations of the essence of language. In the Letter on Humanism, henceforth Letter, he calls language the “house of being” (GA 9: 313/239). In the Conversation, Heidegger bemoans this notion as clumsy (cf. GA 12: 85/5). He also points out that the house of being is not a philosophical concept that subsumes other definitions of language (cf. GA 12: 108). In the same conversation Heidegger thinks after the Japanese word for language, koto ba, in order to determine the essence of language. Heidegger translates koto as “waltendes Ereignen”, as “happening holding sway.” (GA 12: 136/47) Ba means “petals”. Thus, language as koto ba is essentially nothing linguistic in the ordinary sense, but language is rather petals or leaves that prevail and eventuate, i.e., occur and self-withdraw. In other places, like The Essence of Language and the Way to Language Heidegger, however, determines the essence of language as die Sage, saying (cf. GA 12: 202; 224). Moreover, silence continues to play an important role for the determination of the essence of language as Sage. Silence, of course, is also already important in Being and Time. In this chapter I shall provide a synthesis of Heidegger’s apparently disparate determinations of the “essence” of language. In Part III I have argued that Heidegger understands essence in the context of technology as a realm or dimensionality within and thanks to which beings unfold in a certain manner. This is also how Heidegger understands essence in On the Way to Language. Essence is not the timeless whatness of language. Heidegger understands essence, as Dastur notes, “in the sense of the old verb wesen, as the temporal unfolding of the being of something.” (Dastur 2013: 224) Essence refers to the ways in which something essentially occurs rather than what something is. The mentioned “essences” of language are thus not metaphysical quiddities at odds with one another. In my view, we are to think these “essences” of language as unfolding out of the thinking of the event. The question is how, or if at all, it is possible to unify these ways of unfolding. This possibility shall be the focus of this chapter.

With the promotion of the innovation-driven development strategy, patent data mining is receiving increasing attention, especially patent relation mining. Most current works mine some simple types of patent relations. However, the types of relation in patent are more complex than these simple types. Since realizing technical objectives needs to innovate technical functions in structure, function, application, testing or processing of products, the types of relations are formed by verbs and nouns as well. We propose a model to discover of multi-degree valence relations combined with their context. In the model, The noun/verb association relations are obtained by their contextual similarity. Combined with these association relations, the model discovers diverse patent relation types.

Generally, verbs are polysemous in any language as their number is lesser than other categories including nouns. Mostly, the meaning of a verb is decided by the words with which it collocates. The contextual dependency of the verbs reduces the number of verbs in most of the languages or all languages. So by default, verbs become highly polysemous. In textual context or spoken context, the polysemy will not create problems as one can infer the correct meaning of a verb by the context of its occurrence. But in computational context, polysemy will be a problem. As machine does not have the knowledge which human brain has, it must be given knowledge by some means to interpret the meaning of a verb correctly. Polysemy is a problem in the interpretation of Malayalam verbs too. Resolving polysemy in Malayalam verb is needed for any NLP activity in Malayalam including machine translation. In machine translation, ambiguity due to polysemy is a crucial problem. This chapter explores all sorts of ambiguity focusing mainly on ambiguity due to polysemy in verbs. It will also explore resolving polysemy in Malayalam verbs using context similarity.

Malayalam is the regional as well as the official language of Kerala, the southern state of India, and Union Territory of Lakshadweep. The Government of Kerala follows a trilingual (Malayalam, English and Hindi) educational system from primary level to graduation level. But in the context of Machine translation, Malayalam is far behind English and Hindi. Here starts the relevance of study of Malayalam-to-English Machine Translation (MT) Systems. In a sentence, the pattern of verb phrase (VP) demonstrates language-specific features, and the causative sentence construction is one among them. The part of the semantics of the verb can be represented by the causation. The sense of causation is expressed through the verb or verb phrase. Any existing online MT system has not handled causative pattern of sentence. This research studies and analyses the problems in Malayalam-to-English causative sentence translations. Based on the study, this research designs and develops a system to improve the accuracy of existing Malayalam–English by including causative sentence translation mechanism. The output was compared with the output of Google Translate and identified that the Malayalam-to-English causative sentence MT system performs translations of simple causative sentences with outstanding accuracy.

Research on the Chinese high-frequency verb chī ‘eat’ is manifold with quite diverse observations by various analytical proposals. Representative works include the five-element semantic chain [1], the emergent argument structure hypothesis [2], and the MARVS-based semantic accounts [3, 4, 5, 6]. However, little consensus has been reached on the polysemy of chī and its semantic-to-syntactic properties. In this paper, a comprehensive study of chī with in-depth lexical semantic analysis is conducted by adopting a corpus-driven, frame-based constructional approach. It proposes that chī can be viewed as having ‘one frame, three profiles and seven constructional meanings’ under the assumption that semantic distinctions can be made only if there are sufficient collo-constructional evidence. This study also demonstrates how the polysemy of chī can be understood by a two-dimensional analytical model to account for its semantic extensions based on the interaction of spatial and eventive readings.

In the light of the theoretical and practical considerations laid out in Chap. 2, this chapter illustrates on the basis of a collection of Latin and Middle English mixed sermons (MS Bodley 649) from early fourteenth-century England how the Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model can be applied to historical data. Two parallel studies, one on noun phrases and one on verb phrases, provide an insight into the code-switching patterns found in the sermons, with a focus on the differences and similarities between modern and historical code-switching. The first study shows which aspects of code-switching grammar are conditioned by the immediate sociohistorical environment and which features are typical of language mixing as a naturally occurring, general linguistic competence. The second study shows that even though individual languages are subject to continuous change, the pivotal grammatical anchor elements underlying most of the observed code-switching patterns remain surprisingly stable through the centuries.

Using ERP recording technology our purpose is to explore the neural mechanism of the effect of word attribute information and word frequency information on concreteness. Experiment 1: under the lexical judgment task, the relationship between the two variables was investigated. The results showed that in N2 and P3 time window, there were differences between noun and verb processing. In P3 time window, concrete words and abstract words appear separate. In the process of N400, there are differences in the processing of nouns and verbs, concrete words and abstract words. In experiment 2, under the vocabulary judgment task, frequency and vocabulary type were taken as independent variables. The results showed that in N2 time window, high frequency vocabulary and low frequency vocabulary processing were separated. In P3 time window, noun and verb processing differences, concrete and abstract words began to appear separate. In N400, there are differences in the processing of nouns and verbs, concrete words and abstract words. The results suggest that word attributes and word types affect concreteness effect; the concreteness effect occurs in low-frequency words. The processing of concreteness effect of Chinese two-character words supports a single semantic processing model.

International audience; “To instrumentalize” is generally defined1 as “to perform (a piece of music) using a musical instrument or instruments” or “To arrange or score(a piece of music) for instruments, especially for an orchestra,” or “To make or render (something) instrumental to accomplishing a purpose or result;to use as a means to an end.” In mathematics education, the noun “instrumentalization” has been more frequently used than the verb “to instrumentalize.” This type of use has evolved over the time, keeping a strong link with general definitions above, pointing out the creative potentialof an agent (performing, arranging, scoring, making something instrumental. . ..), in the frame of an orchestra.In this entry, we will first address our general view on mediated action, before introducing the notion of instrumentalization, as adapting a toolfor adopting it as a support of one’s mathematical activity.We situate this notion as an element of the dialectics instrumentalization-instrumentationgrounding the instrumental approach. Next, we evidence the evolution of this notion, giving more importance to its role in learning processes.In the fourth section, we underline the influence of this evolution for rethinking the role of the teacher. In the fifth section, we analyze the influence of this evolution for rethinking the instrumental approach itself. From these dynamics,finally, we will sketch some perspectives for further research.

Academic writing should be precise and objective. It should not include jargon, circumlocution, tautology, or cliches. Effective academic writing requires the use of good grammar, a logical structure, precise verb and word choice, and information. Each paragraph has a single theme that is developed in several connecting sentences. Punctuation is important in academic writing. Examples are provided to highlight what is required in academic writing.

Apart from being a rich source of nutrients, medicinal treatment with medicinal plants hold a strong ground because these plants seem to be safe with least aftereffects. Medicinal Plants or herbs possess a special quality or phyto_property that enables them to combat multitude of health issues. This paper is a noble attempt to unearth these disease curing properties of medicinal plants from biomedical literature. The proposed architecture discusses a text mining based literatures mining technique to derive information between biomedical entities like properties of medicinal plants (e.g. anti inflammatory, antioxidant) and disease (e.g. arthritis). Unlike exiting heuristic attempts involving syntactic patterns, co-occurrence analysis, we propose a Verb Between Entities (VBE) algorithm which attempts to discover relationship between entities by analyzing the main verb between them. The framework also incorporates UMLs thesaurus to help identifying verb phrases which includes functional concepts in the course of verb analysis. Performance of the framework has been evaluated on multiple datasets and the outcomes indicate that the recommended framework is more effective in identifying functional semantic relations as compared with the other relevant methods.

The paper investigates the structural types and semantic components of the idiom field day, mil. a day of excitement or a circumstance of opportunity and changes in its meaning acquired in different contexts of American newspapers uploaded into the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Originating from the 18th century military jargon, the idiom field day is currently widely used in the national language, by mass media in particular. Studied newspaper texts (n = 183) in which the idiom field day functions, represent a number of discourses, such as sports (62), economics (47), advertisement (34), culture (23), politics (11), and law (7). The discourses provide the following collocation patterns for the field day: (1) verbal groups are limited to verb ‘to have’ (76) – have field day; (2) nominal groups (107): adjectives (60)/nouns (35)/numbers (12) + field day. Being used by newspapers to report on a variety of events, field day extends its meaning as ‘a happy, merry day off work’ and acquires newspaper context-specific meanings, such as (1) possession of artifacts (economics); (2) professional achievements (sport); (3) companies collaboration (economics); (4) investments (economics); (5) debates (politics); (6) criminal procedures (law).

In this paper, we analyze the necessity of the construction of internal structure resources of verbs from the perspectives of linguistics and NLP application. We also introduce the method and process of the internal structure annotation of double-syllable verbs in Modern Chinese Dictionary (7th Edition). A total of 9697 double-syllable verbs are annotated. From the results of the annotation, it is found that there are 61.19% of words with a character inside the word as the center of the verb. Among them, the words with verb-object structure is the most (64.5%), followed by the adverbial-head structure (27.77%). This paper can provide basic resources for syntactic and semantic analysis so as to realize the unified analysis of lexicon and syntax.