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A reasonable assessment of the value of ecosystem services is an effective measure to maintain the normal operation of the ecosystem and adjust the balance between economic development and the ecological environment. With the help of the related concepts of ecosystem services, this paper establishes an evaluation framework system and adopts the widely used and comprehensive evaluation method of equivalent factors, which is a rapid accounting tool used for the evaluation of ecosystem services. The value of agricultural ecosystem services was estimated from 2008 to 2017 in a typical arid-semiarid region, and nine ecosystem service functions were analyzed. Our research showed that from 2008 to 2017 the value of agricultural ecological services in Gansu Province increased annually, and the annual growth rate in 2012 was the highest (15%). The results showed that the selection of appropriate methods could quickly and effectively evaluate the value of agricultural ecosystem services. In-depth research on the function and value of agroecological services could better promote the sustainable development of agroecosystems and maintain the balance and integrity of ecological service functions. Evaluation of the balance and integrity of agricultural ecosystem ecological service functions in arid semi-arid regions will provide recommendations for land use and sustainable development and ecological environment protection in these regions. Highlights • Agricultural ecosystem services have changed in an arid and semiarid region of China in recent decades. • We reflect the results of China's ecological progress. • This study provides advice on agricultural development of other developing countries.

The main aim of the present study is to disclose the similarities or differences of the climate effects on the COVID-19 outbreak in two countries, which have different climatic conditions. Using the correlation modeling, the results revealed that some climatic factors, such as the ULR, temperature, and CH4 in the UAE and aerosol index and NO2 in Switzerland have positive lagged correlations with the outburst of COVID-19 by intensifying role within - 9, - 7, and - 2 days. The mitigating role was also observed for ozone/solar radiation and temperature/long-wave radiation in the UAE and Switzerland, respectively. The initial hypotheses of the research have confirmed the correlations between new cases of COVID-19 and ULR and aerosol indices in the UAE and Switzerland. However, the main finding revealed that the climate effects on the COVID-19 outbreak show different roles in the different countries, locating in dissimilar climatic zones. Accordingly, the COVID-19 can be intensified by increases of the ULR and temperature in an arid region, while it can be exactly mitigated by increases of these factors in a temperate area. This finding may be useful for future researches for identifying the essential influencing factors for the mitigating COVID-19 outbreak.

The chapter presents the study of soil erosion on the arable slopes of the Crimean peninsula. The paper analyses the climatic conditionality of erosion processes. Based on an array of chronological soil data, a mathematical modelling of the formation of the humus horizon was performed. An assessment was made of the permissible rates of erosion as a criterion for managing erosion neutrality on the peninsula. Calculations based on the models developed show that, in arid regions with Kastanozems and Chernozems, the highest rates of soil formation were observed on the eroded soils of the wetter slopes with a northern exposure. Regional features of climate dynamics led to an intensification of the erosion degradation processes affecting soils and landscapes of the Crimean Peninsula. In the foothills and mountainous areas and on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, where a significant amount of rainfall occurs, the amount of solar radiation acts as a limiting factor. For a quantitative assessment of the rate of soil formation, the most accurate method was based on an assessment of the rate of formation of the humus horizon over time.

The zones of the south Algerian, as the zone of Ouargla, are among the hottest zones, that are characterized by a stern and elevated temperature that can reach the 50 °C and a very big thermal gradient, without forgetting the aridity and dried it that provoke the loads and solicitations on the layer of rolling, of the pavements of the linear infrastructures (roads, aircraft pavements). What gives birth to cracks and the permanent distortions to small scale. Indeed, the downward propagation of these cracks has ominous effects on the lower layers and decrease the lift of the whole considerably especially to the presence of water, that major the damages and accelerate the deteriorations of these last. This work enters in the setting of the contribution for the understanding of these phenomena and therefore to find the adequate solutions that converge toward the safeguard of the body of pavements and the structural capacity of its infrastructures. One will proceed, on the basis of a data base to establish a state of the places that allows to lead an experimental companion to the laboratory and in situ. The integration of the composites geogrides can give satisfactory results and can increase the 1–4 times lasted it of life of the road infrastructure. The results of the dynamic tests by HWD, on road sections reinforced by geo-composites, will be the subject of analysis and reading in this analysis, in order to wedge the other found experimentally results.

Computational chemistry has seen an explosion of methods and techniques over the last 30 years. In particular, the area of understanding surface adsorption has seen radical changes in methodology and systems of interest. It is our goal in the current chapter to review these techniques. Moreover, we will demonstrate how they can be used to understand the interaction of components of arid soils on potential environmental contaminants through a review of our groups research efforts on understanding munitions. Finally, we present an overview of new areas of research that will deliver the next generation of computational and theoretical tools.

Living with the increasingly severe water stress has currently become a crucial concern in the arid inland river basin in northwestern China. Despite water scarcity, water consumption in the basin has been on the rise, due to improvement in the standards of living and a rapid growth of the basin population over the past few decades. We present the first analysis of virtual water flows across all economic sectors within arid inland river basin in northwestern China, the area with the geopolitical importance of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, and with domestic importance as a major agricultural producer and trade power. Results show that the arid inland river basin in northwestern is an absolute net exporter (gross exports greater than gross imports). Approximately, 72.3% of water consumption in the basin is for exported commodities, with the biggest export flows of virtual water being associated with agricultural production. The traded volumes of virtual water have been increasing progressively over the years. It is important to note that the basin produces and exports water-intensive products but imports water non-intensive commodities as the basin in northwestern China where the water scarcity is a problem and the environment is negatively affected. This opens the domain question of whether environmental damage in the arid basin caused by water consumption is worth the socioeconomic benefits. We highlight the major role of economic scale in increasing virtual water changes in the basin over the time period of around 10 years. Demand for water use in agriculture will continue to increase as a result of growing population and economic growth. Environmental demands for water will also vie for scarce water supplies in the future. A better detailed understanding of regional trade and virtual water flows within arid inland river basin in northwestern China can in turn help decision-making processes when trying to promote appropriate policy measures, reflecting local water scarcities, water prices and ecological health concerns.

Regime shifts of major salinity constituents (Ca, Mg, Na, K, SO4, Cl, HCO3, and NO3) in the lower Salinas River, an agricultural ecosystem, can have major impacts on ecosystem services central to continued agricultural production in the region. Regime shifts are large, persistent, and often abrupt changes in the structure and dynamics of social-ecological systems that occur when there is a reorganization of the dominant feedbacks in the system. Monitoring information on changes in the system state, controlling variables, and feedbacks is a crucial contributor to applying sustainability and ecosystem resilience at an operational level. To better understand the factors driving salinization of the lower Salinas River on the central coast of California, we examined a 27-year record of concentrations of major salinity constituents in the river. Although limited in providing an understanding of solute flux behavior during storm events, long-term “grab sampling” datasets with accompanying stream discharges can be used to estimate the actual history of concentrations and fluxes. We developed new concentration–discharge relationships to evaluate the dynamics of chemical weathering, hydrological processes, and agricultural practices in the watershed. Examinations of long-term records of surface water and groundwater salinity are required to provide both understanding and perspective towards managing salinity in arid and semi-arid regions while also enabling determination of the influence of external climatic variability and internal drivers in the system. We found that rock weathering is the main source of Ca, Mg, Na, HCO3, and SO4 in the river that further enables ion exchange between Ca, Mg, and Na. River concentrations of K, NO3, and Cl were associated with human activities while agricultural practices were the major source of K and NO3. A more direct anthropogenic positive trend in NO3 that has persisted since the mid-1990s is associated with the lag or memory effects of field cropping and use of flood irrigation. Event to inter-year scale patterns in the lower Salinas River salinity are further controlled by antecedent hydrologic conditions. This study underscores the importance of obtaining long-term monitoring records towards understanding watershed changes-of-state and time constants on the range of driving processes.

The aim of this work is to expand on the traditional method of examining the properties of the landforms and vegetation separately, considering that variations of geomorphological processes explain the vegetation distribution patterns. The methodology combines the analysis of Google Earth images, the processing of DEM and exhaustive field work. The geomorphological analysis five units: (a) Pediment of mountain upland; (b) Active landforms; (c) Inactive landforms; (d) Inactive landforms raised by neotectonic activity and (e) Lacustrine landforms. The vegetation cover does not exceed 40%, significant differences are found between the various geomorphological units. Said relationships were attributed to factors such as terrain roughness and slope landforms. Terrain roughness was the most significant variable for explaining which the areas are with a higher diversity index. The highest values of roughness were identified in active landforms and pediment of mountain upland. As regards slope landforms, slope exerts positive control over the vegetation cover. The properties of the landforms describe spatial changes in the development of the plant communities and show the consequences of geomorphological changes over such native vegetation patterns. It is deemed essential to combine a geomorphological analysis as a complement for understanding the vegetation patterns in arid zones.

Agroforestry systems involving arid, semiarid, subhumid, humid-perhumid, and coastal ecosystems are pervasive in India. The woody perennial components of such systems exhibit tremendous potential for sequestering atmospheric CO2 in both vegetation and soil compartments. Vegetation carbon (C) sequestration aboveground ranged between 0.23 and 23.55 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 and belowground (roots) varied from 0.03 to 5.08 Mg C ha-1 yr-1. The diverse range of ecoclimatic conditions and the disparate array of practices may explain such variations. Soil C stocks (0–100 cm depth) also varied from 10.0 Mg C ha-1 for the Ziziphus mauritiana + grass system in arid western Rajasthan to as high as 229.5 Mg C ha-1 in the multistrata homegarden systems of Mizoram. There is clearly a need to evolve a rigorous set of procedures for estimating biological carbon sequestration potential.

Soil forming factors not only affect the course of the genesis process but also the present and future performance of the soil system, in terms of how much organic matter, air, and water and how many organisms, nutrients, and minerals it can store. This chapter discusses the soil formation factors (climate, biota, parent material, relief or topography, and time) and their impact on the soil formation processes prevailing in different regions across the country. It has become clear that the factors of soil formation in Libya are mainly influenced by the hot and dry climate (low and irregular rainfall, high temperature, with a wide range of daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations, and high wind speed), which plays an important role in the sparseness of vegetation in the region. Climate dependency dictates particular types of soil formation processes that are more dominant in Libya than in other countries and reduce—if not entirely nullify—the effectiveness of many of them. Consequently, the soils produced in Libya are similar to the soils of arid regions in the world that are undeveloped or newly developed and are typically either Entisols or Aridisols. The situation is slightly different in coastal areas (i.e., Al Jabal Al Akhdar, and some small areas in the mountains of Tripoli), where the precipitation rates are higher and the climate is milder than in other parts of the country. In these areas, the vegetation cover is more widespread, and the processes of soil formation are more active. Thus, the local topography and the parent material are the main factors that influence the formation of more developed soils in these areas.

Land Use/Land Cover Change (LUCC) is recognized as a crucial driver of environmental change on all spatio-temporal scales. Zarzis region is reputed for its olive groves, vital for its socioeconomic development and because of severe climatic factors, it has a vulnerable ecosystem. Our study focuses on the monitoring of land use dynamics underpinning climate change and on the spatiotemporal assessment of the vigor of olive groves. Analysis of Landsat 5 TM image acquired in 2007 and Landsat 8 OLI image acquired in 2014 was performed under IDRISI software, by a remote sensing-based Land Change Modeler (LCM) method. Our results have shown a clear improvement in the vigor of the olive trees, mainly attributed to an increase in rainfall during the years 2010 and 2012. We have identified areas where land degradation has been attenuated both with Tabias, as a soil and water harvesting technique and with alley cropping between olive trees, as a promising recent agronomic practice. This analytical study is relevant for sustainable development.

The Mediterranean Basin is highly exposed to climate change, particularly to increased aridity and to more intense and frequent extreme climatic events such as severe droughts. Several temperate pine species have their southern distribution limit in the Mediterranean Basin, with low-altitude populations and dense, even-aged reforestations being especially vulnerable to drought and competition. In this chapter we review key drivers of pine species distributions under a changing climate. Specifically, we analyze drought-related impacts and vulnerabilities, which may lead to range contractions or changes in structure and composition of Mediterranean pine forests, using long-term or large-scale demographic data (growth, survival and recruitment) from forest historical archives and national forest inventories. We discuss the role of herbivory in modulating tree responses to drought at species distribution limits because it can severely affect tree recruitment. We also discuss how frost tolerance limits the upper and northern limits of pine species, exploring the interactions between drought and frost. Given that the ability of Mediterranean pine forests to maintain their structure and function relies on their resilience capacity to extreme droughts, resilience assessment studies are reviewed. Finally, we discuss the available modeling approximations to assess pine forest vulnerability to climate change and to forecast potential pine species range shifts. We suggest that pine species are highly vulnerable to climate change in the Mediterranean Basin, especially in the Mediterranean-temperate ecotone. Competition generally aggravates the negative effect of drought on pine performance, while herbivory can modulate such effects. Frost, and its interaction with drought, can both facilitate and hamper pine migration, depending on the pine species. Resilience assessments and modeling tools are key approaches to forecast climate-induced range shifts in a more arid and extreme climate.

Endemism is the restriction of a taxon to a defined geographical range. The arid mountains of Sinai support high biodiversity and a reasonable proportion of plant endemics. Six microhabitats are identified in the Sinai Mountains that support the growth of the relatively higher number of endemic plants. These are wadi bed, terrace, slope, gorge, basin and caves. Endemics limited to Sinai are 32 and 4 are known from Sinai beside other regions in mainland of Egypt, or 60.7% of the endemics to Egypt are known from Sinai, of which 54.1% are limited to Sinai. Ecological features and microhabitat supporting the presence of endemic plant species were determined in recent field works of Sinai. The ecological factors linked with topography, soil and vegetation at 200 sample quadrats are collected through the entire distribution range of the 36 endemic plants. Although still in relatively good condition, the mountains of Sinai suffer from increasing human pressure. Habitat destruction threatens resluted from direct effects like grazing, over-collection of medicinal plants, endemic plants, and in several cases, the present status of the populations is not known. The ecology and conservation status of these endemic plants are studied, and the main threats are determined.

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is the type species for the genus Phoenix of the family Arecaceae (Palmaceae). Phoenix species are native to tropical and subtropical areas of Asia and Africa. The date palm has been domesticated for several millennia in its centres of origin, diversity and domestication in the Middle East and North Africa. From there, date culture spread to other areas having a suitable climate (hot and arid or semiarid) with sufficient water available either as groundwater or irrigation. The date palm was introduced into the Western Hemisphere much later and has a more limited production area there. The date palm is a unique, arborescent monocotyledonous plant with distinctive anatomical features and environmental adaptations. It grows in arid, sandy environments but requires large volumes of water for growth and fruit production; it tolerates saline conditions but is not a true halophyte. Numerous labour-intensive cultural practices including pruning, pollination and bunch management are necessary for successful date production. Postharvest handling may include dehydration or hydration, depending upon the fruit moisture content at harvest. Date fruit is also processed into pastes, syrups, butters and other products. Production of dates has increased in recent decades and will likely continue to increase in the near-term future.

Drylands, which make up 41–45% of the Earth’s land area, are inhabited by 31% of the world’s human population and are characterized by climatic forces which shape the Maliva and Missimer, 2012 physical environment and its biological life (UNCCD 2012; Pravalie 2016; IPCC 2017). Although deserts were conceptualized singularly in the context of temperature maxima or lack of precipitation, aridity indices (AI) which take into consideration annual precipitation (P) and evapotranspiration (ET) potential are more accurate and efficient in describing deserts (UNESCO 1979; IPCC 2007, 2017). This is because ET has an inherent co-linearity with additional climatic forces including temperature, wind speed, and Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI). The water cycle, which influences soil type, vegetation cover and species abundance is factored in as well through incorporation of P in the aridity index (UNESCO 1979; IPCC 2007, 2017).

In this chapter, the spatial-temporal variation of rainfall erosivity in Kazakhstan in 1970–2017 was investigated. The results showed that the average annual rainfall erosivity in Kazakhstan over the past 48 years was 464 MJ mm ha−1 h−1 year−1. No significant time trend was found in annual rainfall erosivity. Some of the results presented here are relevant to the further study of potential soil erosion in Kazakhstan. The East Kazakhstan, North Kazakhstan, Almaty regions were under a more significant threat of rainfall erosivity than other regions. It is important to understand past and future differences in rainfall erosivity and its consequences in arid and semi-arid regions, where the amount of daily precipitation is always limited. GCM scenarios (GISSE2H, HadGEM2-ES, and NorESM1M) were statistically downscaled using the delta method for three periods. This study estimated the long-term variations in annual rainfall erosivity in Kazakhstan using past and future climate data. Based on the baseline climate, the average change in percent rainfall erosivity is 26.9%, 26.4%, and 35.2% in the 2030s, 2050s, and 2070s, respectively. The aggregate average annual precipitation and erosion activity for all climate models for all scenarios shows steady growth compared with the baseline climate.

Surrounded by the Black Sea, Aegean Sea, Caspian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Arabian Sea, Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, West Asia has various geographical features such as deserts, plateaus, valleys, plains, high plateaus, mountains, and hills. It has arid, semi-arid, and subtropical climates with an abundance of land and marine ecosystems abounding in thousands of plants and animals. Despite its rich biodiversity, water scarcity, drought, salinity, political disputes, and other factors affect its biodiversity very much. The plant diversity has started to decline tremendously during the last few decades. Most of the agricultural practices in particular the vegetables including pepper are carried out in valleys, open lands, and greenhouses fed by irrigation and rainwater. Capsicum annuum is commonly known as pepper is widely grown in most of the West Asian countries such as Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Armenia. In this chapter, we will evaluate the contribution of different cultivars of pepper in the food production, agriculture, and economy in these countries and efforts made by these countries to protect and increase biodiversity in agriculture.

The olive tree is the major cultural crop in many countries around the Mediterranean Sea. The olive orchards have been established in very different climatic conditions from arid condition (Southern Mediterranean) to more humid conditions (Northern one) and even in poor soil conditions with low organic matter. The tolerance of the olive tree to drought, its salt tolerant character and its major role both in minimizing erosion and desertification effects, have as result that the olive cultivation is the main crop able to establish a sustainable system in subsistence agricultural areas. The Tunisian olive growing counts about 82 millions of olive trees covering 1 835 000 ha. The major part of the olive orchards are conducted under rain-fed conditions (97% of the area). More than 80% of olive orchards are located in semi-arid and arid conditions (center and south), where the average of rainfall oscillated between 100–300 mm and showed low yield. The traditional cultivation method still remains the most frequent system used on extensive conditions. So, the main objective of the grower is to obtain higher productivity at the minimum cost and to produce olive oil with added value. Efforts have been doing in Tunisia, notably by increasing tree density and even by shifting from rain-fed to irrigated conditions. Nowadays, the adoption of an appropriate technological package for each planting system (choice of variety, training system, pruning, irrigation, fertilization and pest control) is necessary to enhance the production and the profit of the grower. This work is a review of the existing genetic resources, the required environmental conditions and the orchard management used in different olive growing conditions.

The quantity and quality of groundwater available are the important aspects connected to the entire ecosystem of the region. Natural causes include alteration in the amount and pattern of rainfall and temperature while anthropogenic causes encompass changes in land-use pattern, discharge of industrial effluents, ground water withdrawals and groundwater recharge, etc. The dynamics of quantity as well as quality of available groundwater resources has a significant impact on the social and economic prospect of human life. In this regard, knowledge of trends of quantity and quality of groundwater plays a vital role in planning and management of water resource projects. Trends are ascertained using time series of water level and various water quality parameters. Over the years, researchers have used various methods of trend analysis that include both parametric and nonparametric trend tests. Mann-Kendall, Spearman-Rho and Sens slope methods are the most commonly used nonparametric tests used to detect the trends of ground water level. These nonparametric tests are capable of detecting monotonic trends only; however, on field the trends may not be monotonic essentially. In this regard, this chapter also presents the application of innovative trend analysis to explore the behaviour of trends in groundwater level in the arid and semiarid regions of Churu, Rajasthan, India. Significant decline in groundwater level was observed four of the five wells selected for the present study. Therefore, the regional bodies need to develop a framework for judicious use of available ground resource with every possible attempt for enhancing groundwater recharge to maintain sufficient groundwater resources for future.

Degradation of land and deterioration of the environment are two major problems in agriculture. Scientists recently warned that 24 billion tons of fertile soils are being lost in every year, largely due to unsustainable agriculture practices. It is estimated that about 25% of the total global land area has been degraded resulting in substantial economic impacts on agricultural livelihoods and national economies, especially in the lower-income countries. If this trend continues, 95% of the Earth’s land area will be degraded by 2050. Soil salinity is considered as the most important abiotic stress, which is responsible for land degradation particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, leading to cause a major challenge to sustainable agriculture. To deal with saline soils and minimize crop loss, new salt-tolerant crop plants developed through classical breeding and genetic engineering have been considered. Besides, several lines of evidence indicate that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) promote plant growth and enhance salinity tolerance by employing various mechanisms including enhanced nutrient acquisition by AMF-colonized plant roots. This chapter covers the occurrence of AMF in saline soils and effect of salinity on the AMF colonization, hyphal length and sporulation both in vivo and in vitro. It also covers literature relating to the alleviation of salt stress by AMF and its beneficial effects on growth and modulation of biochemical, physiological and molecular mechanisms in the host plants to tolerate salt stress. The chapter also overviewed areas where more investigations are required to gain a thorough understanding of the different mechanisms AMF symbiosis to protects plants from salt stress.

In tropical areas, poor soil structure, high potential capacity of rainfall, and wind directly cause soil erosion. In developing countries, due to lack of adequate pesticides and climatic variability, crop yields of verious crops have been impacted. The poor farmers of developing countries could not afford to deal with fluctuating climate due to incapability. This chapter will enable for a deeper understanding towards the rainfall-land degradation relation. This chapter has first briefed about the climatic status in India spatially. Thereafter, relation between the two (land degradation and rainfall) was tried to understand by using the method of regression analysis. It is observed that rainfalls received by Indian subcontinent are high during summer monsoon, while arid and semi-arid region rainfall obtained in June, July, August, and September and remaining months has dried up rapidly. Both the factors responsible for land degradation, for instance, heavy and splash rainfall, cause high soil erosion, and lack of rainfall does not support the vegetation improvement and survival.

Studding olive trees water requirements allows a better water efficiency management. That is why more and more efforts are being made to develop new techniques for more efficient irrigation. In this respect, the estimation of the water needs was carried out using precise methods integrating the maximum parameters of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum. Some researchers have been based on the use of the climatic method, which is summed up by estimating reference evapotranspiration. Other studies have been based on the direct measurement of tree transpiration (physiological method) by xylem sap flow measurements that are more representative of the tree’s water status. Each of these methods is based on a set of climatic, edaphic and physiological parameters of the olive tree. The present work is based on an experimental study carried out on the table olive cultivar “Meski” conducted in intensive. This study aims to estimate the water requirements of the olive tree for a possible optimization of irrigation. To do this, a calculation of the water requirements was carried out by two methods: (1) physiological methods based on Sap flow measured at stem level (T1) and (2) climatic method based on climatic parameters and the water balance (T2). These results allowed us to state that the physiological method allows a better estimation of water requirements. This method also improves the profitability of the olive tree with better optimization of the use of water that arrives up to save 15% water.

The cities of arid North Patagonia are located mainly on valleys framed by slopes. In recent decades they have had exponential demographic growth. The unplanned expansion of the urban area occurs over sensitive and potentially attenuating landscape areas of extreme climatic and hydrological events. In this chapter we present through three case studies the general characteristics of the cities of the region, which should serve as the basis for their planning. We identified that both peri-urban natural areas and green infrastructure provide locally appropriated ecosystem services, with broad potential to ensure good conditions for urban sustainability.

This chapter explores how water has been put to use to serve communities. Among the myriad uses that water has served, irrigation was certainly one of the earliest and most important, particularly to communities in arid regions. Indeed, the long-term viability of these communities depended on maintaining irrigation systems in the face of multiple factors, including climate change. Canals too were relatively early interventions on the landscape helping develop inter-regional trade, and later beginning with the Industrial Revolution, connecting sources of supply with manufacturing centers, and facilitating trade. In a variety of locations around the world, water was also manipulated to turn gears that ground grain and served other production purposes. During the twentieth century, multi-purpose water development projects served multiple purposes, including flood control, transportation, irrigation, and the generation of electricity.

Increasing salinity is a problem in many major river systems worldwide, especially in arid areas. The Euphrates, Tigris, and Shatt al-Arab river system is suffering from significant increases in salinity, especially in the lower reaches. Salinity increases coincide with the construction of dams on the upstream parts of the rivers. Salinities higher than 5000 ppm were recorded in the lower parts of the river system. The Shatt al-Arab is formed by the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in southern Iraq. The salinity problem in the Shatt al-Arab is more severe than that in the two upstream rivers. Salinity values as high as half seawater salinity were observed in the Basra (Maqal) station in 2009. This chapter evaluates the salinity problem of the system composed of the three water courses. The salinity evolution, causes, and distribution are presented analytically. At the end of the chapter, salinity management and potential control options are discussed.

Camels are adapted to the conditions of arid and semi-arid areas, compared to other animal species. Camels have the ability to utilize feed resources available in these areas such as halophytes and convert them into meat and milk and other products. Feeding halophytes, particularly to camels, is a feasible solution to minimize the problem of feed shortage in Egyptian arid and semi-arid regions, where desert represents about 96% of the total area. This chapter sheds light on the effect of feeding camels on some halophytic plants (Acacia, Atriplex) and their relationship with the physical, chemical, organoleptic properties of camel meat under Egyptian conditions. Also, it covers the impact of feeding such forage on daily gain rate, feed conversion efficiency in addition to the economic evaluation. The dressing percentage, edible and non-edible parts and wholesale cuts of camel carcass are also discussed. According to the nutritional and economic results, the use green edible parts of halophytic plants (Acacia and Atriplex) with adjusted concentrate mixture (ACM) in feeding growing camels is economically efficient for meat production with no adverse effects on quantity and quality meat characteristics.

The isotopic signature in local precipitation is driven by factors that control fractionation such as temperature and season, where stable isotopes in groundwater retain the signature of the effects of physical changes at the time of recharge. High ambient temperature and decrease in rainfalls are characteristic features of the El Nino event in southern Africa that has resulted in tremendous pressure on water resource management. Based on the environmental isotope records from the Limpopo River Basin in South Africa and Botswana, this study determines ambient temperature during rainfall at the time of recharge and correlates it with the 14C Mean Residence Time to observe temperature variability in the Holocene and Late Pleistocene. Its implication for the need to manage such historic groundwater is discussed. Temporal variation in stable isotopes and ambient temperature in relation to 14C data revealed the presence of evaporation and recharge at different times due to long-term climatic variability in the areas located within the arid and semi- arid climatic settings in the basin. Evidence of variability in ambient temperature was found in geological times, with increasing trends in the Holocene and Late Pleistocene. Therefore, increasing water demand by various economic sectors requires planned intervention in groundwater resource management to achieve sustainable development.

Luni River Basin in western Rajasthan experiences extreme climatic conditions with very hot summer and extremely cold winter, compounded by high inter-annual variability in rainfall and other weather parameters that cause severe droughts and occasional floods. Pali is one of the districts in this hyper-arid river basin. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater and surface water for irrigation has caused aquifer mining and environmental water stress. In order to identify the water management options for the basin that can help mitigate droughts and arrest groundwater depletion, a water accounting study was undertaken. This helped assess the quantum of water being used in various sectors, and evaluate the opportunities available for augmenting the supplies and reducing the demand for water in consumptive use sectors. Further analysis was carried out for a district, which falls fully in the basin, to analyse the extent to which each one of these interventions would help augment replenishable groundwater resources and reduce the demand for water in irrigation. The policy reforms required in the irrigation sector for affecting the implementation of these interventions are also identified.

Pakistan has a vision to become one of the top ten global economies by the middle of this century, but has to achieve that transition despite being one of the most water-stressed and arid countries in the world. Its water availability goes through extremes from too much to too little water, and climate change is projected to exacerbate these extremes. For decades, the monumental Indus Basin Irrigation System has been a lifeline, allowing Pakistan’s agricultural economy to boom. While the system continues to grow, intensification of agriculture has meant surface water supply is being rapidly replaced with groundwater, and Pakistan has now become the fourth largest groundwater withdrawing country in the world. Yet Pakistan is also among the top five wastewater producing countries, with only 1.2% of that wastewater being treated. This chapter introduces the challenges Pakistan faces in achieving a more sustainable use of its water resources, emphasising that many of these challenges require social and institutional change. It then provides an overview of the chapters, showing how each chapter contributes to a deeper understanding of these challenges, as well as offering practical suggestions for how Pakistan’s future challenges can be addressed.

The ovarian echophysiology of matured female camels from extreme arid conditions was studied by investigations on two hundred eighty eight reproductive tracts. The proportions of females with inactive ovaries was, respectively, 31.25%, 25%, and 50% for the winter, the spring, and the summer. The mean number of active follicular structures per ovary and the proportion of females with active ovaries were significantly higher (p < 0.05) during the winter (0.75 ± 0.36, 68.75%) and spring (0.7 ± 0.41, 75%) compared to the summer (0.33 ± 0.28, 50%). Furthermore, the proportion of active ovaries presenting active corpus lutea was also significantly higher (p < 0.05) in spring season (45.83%). These physiological changes influenced significantly the ovarian weight and mass. The overall mean of females with active ovaries depends significantly on the body condition score (BCS) (p < 0.05). It was concluded that the Sahraoui female camels from the Algerian extreme arid conditions showed high ovarian activity during the cold and rainy months (December–February) that remained rather high in the spring (March–May) and then dropped significantly in the summer without stopping entirely. The favorable reproductive period corresponds to optimal seasonal food availability in pasture and the remarkable improvement of the BCS of female camels.

In this chapter we discuss groundwater development and planning using rainwater harvesting, which can be helpful for crops in semi-arid regions. Rainwater harvesting activities have been performed on drainage lines for stored rainwater in drainage and to recharge poor aquifer zones in a given area. Before rainwater harvesting structures were installed. Drought, water changes, and availability then resulted in the need of the micro-shed area. One rainwater reaping of existing CNB (permanent rainwater reaping structures) at the semi-arid micro-shed in Barshitakli Taluka, Akola district of Maharashtra, India. A total stretch of 5000 m of drainage line (nala) was deepened and widened by necessity in order to have great rainwater storage capacity, and ten permanent structures (CNBs) were restructured. Because of this project, rainwater has been stored in permanent structures (CNBs) during the rainy season after that dry spells period is long that time farmers can be utilized the water to crop growth development. During the rabi season farmers can use rainwater stored in drainage lines and CNB structures. This is very helpful and directly impacts groundwater development and crop growth in semi-arid regions. Thanks to long-term storage, harvested water in CNBs are available for use as a form of protective irrigation for different crops during kharif and rabi seasons. In 2016, some wells were selected near rainwater harvesting structures in semi-arid watersheds.

Opuntia spp. has widespread species which are well-adapted to arid lands and climates over the world. This cactus plant was originated in America and then spread to other regions such as Europe, Africa, and Mediterranean countries. It is mainly cultivated for its seed, edible fruit (prickly pear), and cladodes. The nutritional and health benefits of the Opuntia genus are provided by various compounds such as phenolic compounds, pigments, polysaccharides, mucilage, dietary fibre, vitamins (B1, B2, A, and C), and minerals including magnesium, iron, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. Owing to several health benefits, including prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and inhibition of inflammation, the number of studies focusing on developing novel foods and bioactive compounds by using different parts of this plant has increased recently. Several attempts have been made to integrate this plant into other foods, including bread, cake, pasta, gluten-free products, extrudates, cereal bars, juices, and meat products to improve their nutritional quality. In particular, Opuntia has gained importance as an excellent food source as desertification areas have increased and water resources have decreased globally. This chapter will discuss the recent studies dealing with the use of Opuntia spp. for edible purposes and the development of appropriate processing techniques to incorporate various parts of this valuable plant into other food matrices.