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The successful realization of capabilities of variable resistors as elements of neuromorphic systems calls for a simple model that can reproduce the basic properties of such elements. The paper considers a model of a variable resistor using two parallel opposite simple resistor elements. The equations reducing the variation of a resistor’s state to the movement of a representative point in the two-dimensional space are written and investigated. The model is shown to reproduce many properties of real variable resistors and allow us to evaluate their usability in particular data processing systems. Some potentially useful modes of operation of variable resistors are analyzed. The conditions under which a variable resistor can be used as a memory unit, sign-variable signal detector are found. The important role of characteristic functions for estimating variable resistors is pointed out.

An electrical resistance strain gage is a resistor used to measure strain. In its basic form, it is a wire adhered onto the surface of a component so that strains of the component are transmitted to the wire. Its operation is based on the discovery made by Lord Kelvin in 1856 that the electrical resistance of a wire increases with increasing strain and decreases with decreasing strain. By measuring the change of the resistance of the strain gage the strain is inferred. Strain gages constitute the most widely used method of measuring strain at a point.

The two most important architectures for constructing a digital-to-analog converter are the unary and binary approach. Both approaches have their merits. Next to the architecture, the second choice is the domain in which the converter is realized: voltage, current, charge or time. Realizations in all these domains are discussed and their specific behavior is analyzed. The resistor string is an important conversion element as it constitutes the digital-to-analog function in a flash converter. Its dynamic behavior is essential for reaching high-speed performance. The binary counterpart of this converter is the R-2R architecture. The current-steering topology is the dominant realization for fast stand-alone digital-to-analog conversion. The properties of this converter are described and analyzed. Charge domain converters are mostly applied in lower-performance, low-power applications. Various topologies allow to choose between low area or better performance. A special section is dedicated to error sources and methods to improve the performance. The dynamic element matching, current calibration, and data weighted averaging methods are explained. A number of examples detail the design considerations and choices. Lay-out examples of commonly used structures are presented.

Printable photovoltaic modules, along with other printed electronic devices, such as light-emitting diodes, thin-film transistors, capacitors, coils, and resistors, are a low-cost alternative to the conventionally deposited devices. Due to its fabrication simplicity and the feasibility of using large-area flexible substrates, the printable solar cell (PSC) is a prospective candidate in many application fields. Furthermore, the light-absorbing layer of PSC is usually several orders of magnitude thinner than widely used conventional Si solar cells; thus, production of PSC requires much less material, and in the case of printing deposition there is very little waste of material in comparison to other deposition methods. The possibility of using flexible large-scale substrates opens the door to multiple advanced application opportunities such as smart textiles and photovoltaic window shades. This chapter addresses a topic regarding key aspects of development, fabrication, and application with respect to PSC, mostly including solution-processed organic polymeric cells, inorganic thin-film solar cells, and organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells. Moreover, working principles, applicability of PSC, their merits and demerits, and future application possibilities are considered. Additionally, the chapter contains a description of a variety of different solution processable materials and their deposition and printing technologies.

A system is an interconnection of objects with a definite relationship with the objects and attributes. Consider a simple R, L, C series electric circuit. The components (objects) R, L and C when connected together form the system. The current flow in the series circuit and the voltages across the elements R, L and C are the attributes. If i is the current flowing in the circuit, the voltage across the resistor R is iR. Thus, the object R and the attribute i have a definite relationship between them. The voltages across any of these objects R, L and C can be taken as the output.

Surface-mount technology is a method for producing electronic circuits in which the components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. The purpose of this study was to analyze nozzle change in two production lines. Following a previous study, it was proposed that one type of nozzle would place resistors while another type of nozzle would place capacitors, contrary to what happened in the initial process, where the two placed both components. However, the change of nozzle was not done globally, but only applied to two specific types of capacitors that were more critical. Even so, the positive effect of this change was globally visible, both in the decreased number of component rejection and in the reduced number of component defects in the printed circuit boards. It was also possible to estimate the percentage saving and the expected growth from this new implementation. The data were validated using statistical analysis. Finally, the current cleaning periodicity of the nozzles was examined in order to verify if it was compromising their performance.

In this chapter, state equations are applied to solve the basic and advanced problems of electrical circuit analysis. In this chapter, the problems are categorized in different levels based on their difficulty levels (easy, normal, and hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal, and large). Additionally, the problems are ordered from the easiest problem with the smallest computations to the most difficult problems with the largest calculations.

In this chapter, the problems of the first chapter are fully solved, in detail, step-by-step, and with different methods.

Smart home technology is evolving quickly, and numerous smart home devices associated with Artificial Intelligence (AI) have increased the quality of life for occupants. The purpose of making this tool is to design, build, and test the Internet of Things (IoT) using the Universal Board with the ATMega328 microcontroller to measure, record, and display data via a smartphone. The Sugeno fuzzy method is used to find the cryptic value of the system. The system design consists of a series of Universal Board modules with an ATMega328 microcontroller which acts as a controller for automatic drying monitoring, a series of light-dependent resistor sensors, raindrop, and DHT22 sensors, as well as a DC number and a micro switch that functions as the output of all these sensors. The data obtained is displayed on the mobile application. These tools and applications have worked well, it can be seen from the several tests that have been carried out there are no significant differences in system calculations and manual calculations.

In this paper, performance analysis of Frequency demodulation using remote laboratory is presented. Remote laboratory system has the option of selecting nine different combination of Frequency demodulation circuit. It is possible to perform frequency demodulation experiments with three different capacitors and three different resistor values. This will enable the user to analyze the frequency demodulation performance thoroughly. User can see the time response as well as frequency response during the conduction of experiment. The free running frequency, lock and capture can also be measured. Remote laboratory system for oscillations is built using Aurdino ATMEGA-2560, National instruments (NI) Analog discovery kit and indigenously developed Printed Circuit Board. User has the freedom to conduct the experiment any number of times from anywhere with anyone.

This chapter will go over what it means for components to be connected in series or in parallel, with an emphasis on resistors. When resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance increases. When the resistors reconnected in parallel, the effective resistance decreases.

Solar power is one of the natural sources available in most countries. This gives a definite advantage to the tropical countries that experience hot weather to use solar energy to generate electrical power supply. However, the generation of electricity using solar irradiation is costly and it can produce its maximum capability only at peak hours which is 12 pm to 3 pm in a day. In order to overcome this disadvantage, researcher has developed a mechanism called the solar tracker. The solar tracker will track or trace the position of the sun from the morning until evening and manoeuver accordingly to get maximum exposure. By doing so, the solar panel can obtain its maximum capability in the morning and evening although the time is not in peak hour. A solar tracker can also increase the solar output from 5% to 20% depending on the tracker and weather. This project extends the development of the solar tracker by building a portable solar tracker by using a servo motor and a light-dependent resistor (LDR). The average voltage, current, and power output between this solar tracker and a fixed solar panel show more than 50% improvement. The percentage of the output between these two panels has been calculated to show the rate of improvement.

This paper presents the study of a new resistive capacitor switching transient limiter (RCSTL) to reduce the risk of losses due to the power capacitor switching transients. The RCSTL consist of the three limiting resistors, a three-phase full-bridge diode rectifier, a thyristor and a three-phase coupling transformer. The limiting resistor is in series with the capacitor bank, and the thyristor connected at dc side of the diode rectifier. During the process of the capacitor bank energizing, the thyristor is in OFF state. The coupling transformer’s secondary side behaves as open circuit due to which high impedance with the transformer. Magnetic reactance remains parallel with the limiting resistor, which is in the series in the capacitor bank. Under such condition the limiting resistor restrains the capacitor switching transients. The control system triggers the thyristor, and the coupling transformer acts as a short circuit in a steady-state state. The limiting resistors bypassed by coupling transformer, and therefore RCSTL has no significant effect on the course. To describe the different operating mode of proposed RCSTL analytical analysis is performed.

This chapter will introduce equivalent circuits and go over the Thevenin equivalent circuit and the Norton equivalent circuit. Two circuits are called to be equivalent if they behave the same for the outside world. The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source and a resistor. The Norton equivalent circuit consists of a current source and a resistor.

The purpose of this design is to design a WIFI based intelligent meter data acquisition module; it is mainly composed of HT6015 chip, WIFI module, etc. The voltage and current signals are first entered into the relevant resistive and capacitance filter processing signal, filter clutter and so on, and then transmitted to the RN8027C metering chip to realize the conversion of electric energy into pulse signal, then transmitted to the HT6015 chip to complete the statistics of pulse signal and then to complete the statistics of electric energy. Finally, the power information is transmitted by the WIFI module. The electrical signals in this system are first passed through the capacitance resistor to divide the voltage to produce the equal proportion signal, and are easily adjusted to the input range of the sampling port of the metering chip. The low pass filter is used to filter out the interference signal containing the useful signal, so as to obtain the real power consumption and other information more accurately. After RN8027C the chip, the electrical signal to the pulse signal is transformed, and then the electrical information can be obtained by processing the statistical change of the HT6015 chip, and the WIFI module can be transmitted. As a result, the electronic signal is collected, processed and transmitted quickly, which is the design of the intelligent meter data acquisition module based on WIFI.

This chapter will examine Ohm’s law, which details the current–voltage relationship for resistors. The voltage V across the resistor and the current I through the resistor obey the law of V = IR, where R is the resistance of the resistor.

The invention of the integrated circuit allowed many transistors to be combined on a single chip, and it was a revolution in computing. The integrated circuit placed the previously separated transistors, resistors, capacitors, and wiring circuitry on to a single chip made of silicon or germanium. The integrated circuit shrunk the size and cost of making electronics, and it had a major influence on the design of later computers leading to faster and more powerful machines. The germanium-based integrated circuit was invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductors did subsequent work on silicon-based integrated circuits. Moore’s Law on the exponential growth of transistor density on an integrated circuit is discussed, as well as its relevance to the computing power of electronic devices.

This chapter will describe the voltage divider circuit, current divider circuit, and the Wheatstone bridge. If the same current running through two resistors, the resistor with a larger resistance gets larger portion of the voltage. If the same voltage applied to two resistors, the resistor with a smaller resistance gets larger portion of the current.

The chapter is dedicated to consideration of high frequency and microwave electronic components for radar sets – micro strip filters, microwave filters on the surface acoustic waves, (SAW-filters), cable seals, power strip microwave resistors, high frequency connectors, ceramic microwave components for radar sets (ceramic and film capacitors, network filters, special connectors and cable «assembly sets»).

This chapter aims to cover the fundamental aspects of integrated circuit (IC) components such as MOS transistors, resistors, capacitors, and inductors – discussing their physical properties, limitations, and their use in high-frequency circuit design. The IC design process is increasingly done with the help of computer-aided design tools using sophisticated design algorithms and detailed model parameter sets provided by IC manufacturers. Hence, the design engineers are prone to take the simulation results for granted without thinking about the complicated interactions among thousands of components and their parasitics. This chapter provides an in-depth understanding of the physical properties of components as well as their behaviors influencing the performance of analog circuits. The current-voltage relations of MOS transistors derived with a new approach under non-velocity saturated and velocity saturated conditions. The parasitics of MOS transistors and their geometry- and technology-related properties are discussed. The passive components are also summarized with their parasitics and their limits of physical realization.

In general, a nonlinear active circuit has the multipoles structure shown in Fig. 2.1. Dynamic multi-terminal capacitive C and inductive L elements (possibly nonlinear) are connected with multiport structure N composed of independent and controlled sources e, js and elements described by some nondynamic and nonlinear i-v (current-voltage) characteristics (resistors, diodes, memristors, transistors, etc.). Descriptions of instantaneous state problems of such circuits come down to differential algebraic equations (in brief DAEs) being frequently transformed into ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Their solutions have to form manifolds of integral curves usually determined by numerical approaches.

In this chapter, the required current sensing bandwidth is investigated for different applications. In power electronic applications, like high-voltage converters or motor drivers, with external power devices such as IGBT, GaN, and SiC, fast current slopes >3kA∕µs can occur. At the same time these applications have voltage levels above 1kV. To reproduce these fast current changes and to handle the high voltages, an off-chip current sensor with galvanic isolation and a bandwidth of more than 10MHz is required. In order to reproduce signal currents of an advanced integrated power converter operating in the multi-MHz region, on-chip current sensing with a bandwidth above 50MHz is required. This chapter presents a study on state-of-the-art current sensors, which indicates the lack of suitable sensing solutions. Current sensors like Hall, fluxgate, and magnetoresistive resistors (MR) detect the current by means of its magnetic field. They provide galvanic isolation, required for many power applications, but have limited bandwidth at frequencies below 500kHz and often require extensive post-processing. Integrated CMOS current sensors are available for on-chip and off-chip current sensing, but these current sensors do not reach the required multi-MHz bandwidth. Furthermore, some current sensors require expensive post-processing.

A memristor is a nonlinear device obeying Ohm’s law but, unlike a resistor, the memristor resistance, also called memristance, depends upon the history of the voltage applied or the current flowing through it. A memristor is then both a nonlinear and a memory element in the (v, i)-domain. Another unique property is nonvolatility, namely, when current (or voltage) is turned off, the memristor can keep in memory the final value of charge, flux, or memristance, thereafter (see Chap. 2).

In this brief chapter we discuss some fundamental dynamic phenomena that can be observed in nonlinear circuits containing time-invariant resistors, inductors, capacitors, and dc sources (autonomous RLC circuits). In Chap. 6 we will study analogous dynamic phenomena for nonlinear circuits containing also memristors. While in first-order autonomous circuits any bounded solution converges to an equilibrium point (EP), second-order circuits with locally active nonlinear resistors can display nonvanishing oscillations, as negative resistance oscillators belonging to the class of Van der Pol oscillators. More complex dynamics, as chaotic dynamics, can be observed in third-order autonomous circuits, the most famous example being Chua’s oscillator.

Variable resistors have proven to be potential elements of massively parallel computation systems. Non-resistor components (transistors, diodes, capacitors) are indispensible is such systems. However it might be desirable to integrate only resistor elements into large systems at the first stage of integration. The question arises of the adequate data representation in this sort of systems. In this connection, a system totally consisted of variable resistors located at junctions of conductors is considered. The use of individual resistors as data medium is shown to be impracticable because of nonlocality of the data recording process. The use of group properties of a conductance matrix looks more promising. It is convenient to take a representative graph of the conductance matrix as data-encoding entities. Being the result of the thinning of the matrix by zeroing small conductivities, this sort of graph is noise resistant and can determine the effective two-terminal conductivity to good accuracy. The dynamics of the representative graph is defined by the interaction between initial conditions, the signature graph and input signals.

The existence of high armature current is the main limitation while starting a DC series motor. This initial current can have dangerous effects on the DC motor such as damage of windings and reduction in the lifetime of the machine. There are two basic methods of starting of DC motor namely the resistor starting method and the soft start using solid-state devices. In this project, to lessen the inrush current, the solid-state method was adopted to start the motor smoothly. The system uses Arduino Atmega328p-PU Microcontroller to send pulses to the motor driver which regulates the running of the motor. By focusing on DC series motor, power electronic converters and microcontrollers, the system was modeled and simulated in Proteus ISIS Software. The results recorded from the soft starter system were compared with a direct online starting system considering the starting current and voltage of the motor with an open loop control system. The soft starter system was able to decrease the direct online current value from 0.996 A to 0.449 A which represents approximately 28.1% reduction of the starting current to protect the motor.

Although the concept of the memristor (an amalgamation of the words: memory and resistor) was introduced 50 years ago, only recently research community has started seriously investigating various properties and potential applications of this nonlinear two-terminal electrical component. The absence of any reliable and practical physical device that can demonstrate the perceived behaviors of the memristor has been hindering the experimental work and the implementation of memristor-based applications. Therefore, most of the research works are still at the analytical stage and depend on mathematical models or emulator circuits of the memristor. In this chapter, the fundamental concepts and the theoretical background of memristor are briefly illustrated to provide a background for the memristor models and emulator circuits to be presented in this book.

An electronic design of a leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) artificial neuron built with one Vanadium Dioxide Resistive Random Access Memory switch (RRAM VO2 switch), which samples the functionalities of biological neurons, is presented. Built with (RRAM VO2 switch) neurons, a two layer spiking neural network is modeled in the LTSPICE simulator. A one transistor one resistor (1T1R) design which integrates CMOS and RRAM in a structure serving as a synaptic neural connection is proposed.

At the beginning, the Wheatstone bridge was a group of four resistors connected in a bridge configuration, with a DC voltage supply in one of the diagonals and a null detector in another. Later on, this concept was extended to include this bridge supplied from a constant current source, unbalanced one (with a voltmeter instead of null detector) or AC Wheatstone bridge. A new concept also appeared, the Wheatstone half-bridge (more correct, “arm-pair”), having two series connected similar impedances (resistors, inductors or capacitors) and associated with other measuring circuits, involving various effects (inductive, capacitive, magnetoresistive, galvanomagnetic, magnetoelastic or biparametric).

Most of the through hole and SMD electronic components have the technical information about the value and other technical specifications printed on the body of the component. This paper proposes Machine Vision system for Recognition of used throughole printed electronic components into different categories using optical character recognition technique. In this paper the method of classification of printed electronic components into different classes viz. Polar Capacitors, Disc capacitors and printed resistors, transistors and integrated circuits have been discussed. As the components to be classified are manufactured by different manufacturing companies it is a very challenging task to read the printed information with different fonts, different color background and different illumination level. Methodology for isolation of lines, words and character using segmentation has been discussed. Extracted characters were recognized using template matching method.

This chapter helps both groups of underprepared and knowledgeable undergraduate students taking courses in electrical circuit analysis. In this chapter, the basic and advanced problems of capacitive and inductive first-order circuits are presented. Each type of the first-order circuit comprises one or one equivalent energy-saving component (a capacitor or inductor) and a combination of other components including resistors, independent voltage and current sources, and dependent voltage and current sources. Like the other chapters of this textbook, the problems are categorized in different levels based on their difficulty levels (easy, normal, or hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal, or large). Additionally, the problems are ordered from the easiest problem with the smallest calculations to the most difficult problems with the largest calculations.

This paper describes a novel methodology to generate analog and digital circuits, autonomously, using the transistor (or other elementary device, e.g. resistor) as the basic elementary block – flat-level. A genetic algorithm is employed as the generation engine and variable length chromosomes are used to describe the circuit topology that evolves during the search. The circuit devices type and sizing are described by each gene of genetic algorithm. The automatic process starts with the circuit input and output specifications, and proceeds with the circuit topology and sizing evolution to meet those specifications, eventually, ending up with a novel topology. During the evolution, each generated circuit is electrically evaluated by a spice-like circuit simulator, i.e. Ngspice, using full model specifications - like BSIM3 for transistors - in a highly parallelized architecture built over a multi-thread model.

Most secondary school students fail to develop an adequate understanding of electric circuits as they tend to reason exclusively with current and resistance. Effective reasoning about electric circuits, however, requires a solid understanding of the concept of voltage. Against this background, a new teaching concept based on the electron gas model was developed with the goal to give students a qualitative but robust conception of voltage as a potential difference that causes the electric current. Using an air pressure analogy, the teaching concept aims to provide students with intuitive explanations that have their origins in the students’ everyday experiences, e.g. with bicycle tires or air mattresses. Similarly to these everyday objects, where air pressure differences cause an airflow, voltage is introduced as an electric pressure difference across a resistor that causes the electric current. An empirical evaluation with 790 secondary school students shows that the new teaching concept leads to a significantly better conceptual understanding than traditional teaching approaches in Germany. Furthermore, 12 of the 14 participating teachers state that they plan to teach according to the new concept in future as they consider it to be a significant improvement.

The article discusses the electrical equivalent circuit for installing a plasma generator in order to highlight the functional dependencies of the steady state of the control system. Experimentally established effect coating mechanism using tungsten carbides and rare earth impurities to the process of increasing resistance parts, which depends specifically introduced into the plasma generation system of controlled variables of internal resistances. This allows the use of a functionally stable control system for a non-stationary plasma medium. Experimental studies have confirmed that plasma formation occurs with the necessary parameters due to voltage stabilization at the target cathode and anode. Also, in order to stabilize the process, it is necessary to correct the current of the ionized flow, and equalize the energy potential of charged particles of the ion-plasma medium. To maintain the specified parameters within specified limits, it is necessary to introduce the corresponding resistance variables into the plasma generation system. Resistance variables are combined into a block of ballast resistors, which ensures the stability of the plasma formation and affects the value of current or voltage. These derived variable coefficients help maintain the functional stability of the specified parameters within the specified limits. This suggests that it is possible to control the flow of ionized particles by controlling their internal resistance. Due to this, the deposition of the tungsten carbide mixture on the workpiece is controlled. Coating using tungsten carbides and rare earth impurities is one of the most common in the production of tools that require high hardness, corrosion resistance and wear resistance.

This chapter helps both groups of underprepared and knowledgeable undergraduate students taking courses in electrical circuit analysis. In this chapter, the basic and advanced problems of second-order and higher-order circuits are presented. A second-order circuit comprises two energy-saving components (two capacitors, two inductors, or a combination of one capacitor and one inductor) and a combination of other components including resistors, independent and dependent voltage sources, and independent and dependent current sources. Like the other chapters of this textbook, the problems are categorized in different levels based on their difficulty levels (easy, normal, or hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal, or large). Additionally, the problems are ordered from the easiest problem with the smallest calculations to the most difficult problems with the largest calculations.

Real capacitors and inductors are often less ideal than real resistors. The non-ideal behavior can lead to some inconvenience that must be dealt with when capacitors and inductors are measured and used. In addition, some interesting new applications and results are presented using capacitors and inductors.