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Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is instigated by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of March 13, 2021, more than 118.9 million cases were infected with COVID-19 worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA beta-CoV. Most COVID-19 infected individuals recover within 1–3 weeks. Nevertheless, approximately 5% of patients develop acute respiratory distress syndrome and other systemic complications, leading to death. Structural genetic analyses of SARS-CoV-2 have shown genomic resemblances but a low evolutionary correlation to SARS-CoV-1 responsible for the 2002–2004 outbreak. The S glycoprotein is critical for cell adhesion and the entrance of the virus into the host. The process of cell entry uses the cellular receptor named angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Recent evidence proposed that the CD147 as a SARS-CoV-2′s potential receptor. The viral genome is mainly held by two non-structural proteins (NSPs), ORF1a and ORF1ab, along with structural proteins. Although NSPs are conserved among the βCoVs, mutations in NSP2 and NSP3 may play critical roles in transmitting the virus and cell tropism. To date, no specific/targeted anti-viral treatments exist. Notably, more than 50 COVID-19 candidate vaccines in clinical trials, and a few being administered. Preventive precautions are the primary strategy to limit the viral load transmission and spread, emphasizing the urgent need for developing significant drug targets and vaccines against COVID-19. This review provides a cumulative overview of the genomic structure, transmission, phylogeny of SARS-CoV-2 from Indian clusters, treatment options, updated discoveries, and future standpoints for COVID-19. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-021-02749-0.

The whole body of writings on a particular subject produced by scholars is broadly called its literature. A ‘review of literature’ is a critical and evaluative description of publications on a chosen topic. Literature reviews are integral parts of research proposals, theses, and research papers. Exclusive literature reviews are also published in review series of publications such as annual reviews of reputed publishers. Sometimes, one or two review articles, mostly invited, may find a place in primary journals too. In a thesis, literature review is an important chapter, providing the background and justification for the research undertaken.

Researchers and research students are expected to write various kinds of scientific reports. These include assignments, term papers, project reports, seminar reports, project proposals, theses, abstracts, research reports, research papers, reviews, and popular articles. All these come under the purview of ‘scientific writing’ or ‘technical writing’. Scientists should accept that writing is part of their work, and they must be able to write using good English. Many wrongly feel that English is not important for science and technology, and chances are that such persons may end up as poor communicators.

When planning for research, we select appropriate methods and designs to fulfill its objectives. Each discipline of science has its own ways of doing research. Social sciences mainly make use of qualitative and non-experimental methods although experimental methods are also adopted occasionally. Some of these qualitative and non-experimental methods are employed by natural scientists too. From a practical standpoint, depending upon the disciplines and nature of study, researchers choose a research design and plan a project for achieving the objectives. Researchers can choose any of the numerous qualitative or quantitative methods as they wish, but depending upon the circumstances, time, resources, and the type of variable involved.

Once the project proposal is approved and the source of funding is finalized, you have to act quickly and start the project. Do not wait for all the formalities to start the project; otherwise, you may not be able to complete the project within the stipulated time. Once you have started and the project is underway, periodic monitoring is essential for the smooth running of the project in the right direction. Gathering data meticulously through surveys or observations is essential for the success of a project.

Punctuation marks are symbols used in writing to make the meaning of sentences clear and to make reading easier. There are four types of punctuation. In end punctuation, symbols are used to indicate the ending of a sentence, which include periods or full stops, question marks, and exclamations marks. Internal punctuation marks, which occur within sentences, are used to indicate relationship of certain words or group of words to the rest of the sentence. These include commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, and parentheses. Direct quotation punctuation includes quotation marks and brackets.

Not only writing about research but also how to speak about research and research findings are important issues for a researcher. Scientists get opportunities to speak about their works in various capacities. Presenting papers on ongoing or completed research works in scientific meetings or conferences is such an opportunity. Sometimes, as an expert in the field, you may be invited to speak or lecture on the status of a certain subject, which would in all probability be a review of work done on the subject until then and future prospects.

Humans recognized the importance of measurements long ago. Many of the traditional units of measurements evolved naturally. By the first half of the twentieth century, there were two well-established systems of weights and measures—the imperial system and the metric system. The imperial system, also called the British system or the FPS system, was derived from the old Anglo-Saxon measurements evolved as a natural way of expression of measures.

When we write an essay, research paper, thesis, or book, it is normal to include information from the work of others or support our arguments by reference to other published works. All such academic documents draw heavily on the ideas and findings of previous and current researchers available through various sources such as books, journals, theses, newspapers, magazines, government reports, or Internet sources. In all these cases, proper referencing is essential in order to ensure easy retrieval of information. Referencing is the name given to the method of showing and acknowledging the sources from which the author has obtained ideas or information.

New knowledge arises in many ways. Many of the earlier findings made by our ancestors were accidental or by trial and error. Chance discoveries played a crucial role in the development of science and technology in prehistoric times. Primitive humans learned many things through observation. Observation of wild fire and the consequent making of fire, domestication of animals and plants, and use of cooked food are typical examples. The life of primitive humans was centred on hunting, fishing, and gathering food from nature.

Professionals in any field, may they be medical practitioners, lawyers, engineers, agricultural officers, veterinarians, chartered accountants, or others—all are expected to follow certain ethics according to the nature of their profession. Scientists are no exception. Ethics are norms that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour in society. Research ethics deal with the application of basic ethical principles to scientific research. Common ethical issues in science include the design and implementation of research involving human beings and animals; scientific misconduct such as fraud and plagiarism; improper practices; whistle blowing; and research management.

Facts or information measured and used as a basis for reasoning, calculation, or decision-making are called data. The collected data have to be presented in research reports in a meaningful manner, so that readers grasp the contents easily. Condensing data in tables is the most common method of presenting data followed by charts, graphs, line diagrams, and other illustrations. Tables facilitate easy comparison and offer a useful form of condensation of data as the requirement of detailed explanation is reduced.

Research workers engaged in scientific pursuits bring out new ideas and information continually on various aspects of science. However, such research results, if not made available to the widest possible audience within a reasonable time, are worthless. New research is often based on the work of others. One may start where another scientist stopped. Research workers, therefore, after the completion of research projects, must compile the results and publish them in scientific journals with possible interpretations and clear conclusions. Only then, one can say that the research project is completed. Apart from research papers, there are some other established means of research reporting. These include theses, dissertations, conference proceedings, electronic publications, progress reports, and completion reports. For obtaining Ph.D., M.Phil., or Master’s degree in professional subjects such as agriculture, medicine, and engineering one has to submit a thesis or dissertation—another form of research report.

Most of the knowledge that we call science has been generated during the past 500 years. It took a long while to determine how the world is better investigated. One earlier method was to just talk about it or argue as old philosophers did. To cite an example, Aristotle, one of the great Greek philosophers, believed that women have fewer teeth than men have, and provided long arguments in support of his belief. If he had bothered to count the teeth of any one of his wives, he would not have committed this ‘deductive blunder’! This kind of logic is unreliable. Simple arguments will not prove anything. To ascertain whether a statement is correct, it requires proofs.

Note taking is a normal practice when students attend lectures, seminars, and discussions. Noting down important points is also routine when reading books, journals, and other reference materials for preparing essays, seminars, presentations, theses, and examinations. These activities are important for researchers and teachers too, if they want to excel in their profession. We use the phrases, note taking and note making, to distinguish the above two processes of hearing and reading. ‘Note taking’ is a passive process, mostly done by students or listeners during lectures, but ‘note making’ is a more active and focused activity where one note down relevant and required information after reading a book or article. Note taking and note making represent two related key academic skills students and researchers must nurture, but one has to approach them prudently for greater utility.

In scientific writing, in addition to grammatical mistakes, chances of wrong usages of words and phrases are many. In this chapter, some strategies to cut down words and improve the overall writing style have been included followed by lists of singular and plural words, commonly confused words, unnecessary use of several words instead of a single word, unnecessary qualification of words, unnecessary phrases, and typical cliches (stale idiomatic expressions) along with alternatives compiled from various sources. In most cases, the alternatives are helpful to reduce the number of words. Always prefer the alternatives suggested in the right column.

Information is knowledge communicated through any media, which includes sensible statements, facts, principles, concepts, opinions, interpretations, and ideas. Information becomes knowledge only when it is conceived and understood. We get information from various sources such as documents, organizations, teachers, experts, colleagues, and even lay people. Scientists create knowledge by implementing various research projects or through observation and experience. In most universities, often the information being given to the students is at least 8–10 years old. Chances are that by the time students learn this ‘new’ information, still new information may have already replaced it! In olden days, whatever we learnt remained fresh for a considerable time—at least the lifetime of an individual.

Students enrolled for Master’s degree in agriculture and allied subjects have to conduct a short-term original research work, and present the outcome in the form of a thesis. A thesis is also mandatory for higher degrees in medicine and engineering. In basic sciences such as physics and botany, although thesis is not mandatory for Masters programme, the present trend is to have a dissertation or at least a project report. All the disciplines, whether basic or applied, demand the submission of a thesis for the award of Ph.D.

Human beings have been curious from the very beginning. Primitive humans observed matters concerning the universe, and changed their way of living, settlement, food habits, social institutions, and many others over time. In fact, these were the results of ‘research’ done by our ancestors on the processes happening in nature, which helped them to learn many lessons and draw several conclusions.

Research is a costly venture. In a research organization inclusive of university and college departments, funds for research are released only after careful scrutiny of the merit of the proposed work. A formal research proposal and its approval are also necessary for thesis works of students. In addition to the in-house funds of the organization, scientists may get funds from external agencies—both national and international. Fortunately, there are several funding agencies to promote research and development in specified areas, usually on project mode, by providing grants to individuals and groups. Therefore, instead of waiting for the meagre resources of parent institutions, scientists can approach a suitable external agency for financing research projects. Your success in obtaining a research grant means that you and your institution are benefited in various ways.