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Purpose: The accessory bones around the elbow are very rare variant structures, present in approximately 0.7% of cases. They can cause diagnostic problems and can be mistaken for pathological structures, especially when pain and limitation of elbow movements are present and a trauma can be traced in the patient's history. They are of different nature, either presenting within muscle tendons as sesamoids (brachialis and triceps brachii muscles) or presenting intra-articularly probably as separated or accessory ossification centres. The least common is the os supratrochleare anterius., Methods: We present a case of a young male, featuring chronic blocking and 20° limited flexion of his right elbow, which bothered him during his occupation as a locksmith. In history, he suffered minor trauma to the elbow 20 years ago. X-ray and CT showed a large ossicle in the coronoid fossa of the humerus., Results: The ossicle was surgically extracted in small pieces. The patient left satisfied with no mention of complaints., Conclusion: The os supratrochleare anterius is a very rare accessory bone of the elbow, located in the coronoid fossa of the humerus which can mimic many pathological states, and limit movements and causing pain around the elbow., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature.)

Awareness of unique path of the superficial branch of the radial nerve and its unusual sensory distribution can help avoid potential diagnostic confusion. We present a unique case encountered during a routine dissection of a Central European male cadaver. An unusual course of the superficial branch of the radial nerve was found in the right forearm, where the superficial branch of the radial nerve originated from the radial nerve distally, within the supinator canal, emerged between the extensor digitorum and abductor pollicis longus muscles and supplied the second and a radial half of the third digit, featuring communications with the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve and the dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve. Due to dorsal emerging of the superficial branch of the radial nerve the dorsal aspect of the thumb was innervated by the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve. To our best knowledge such variation of the superficial branch of the radial nerve has never been reported before. This variation dramatically changes aetiology and manifestation of possible entrapment syndromes which clinicians should be aware of., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature.)

Purpose: Discrepancy between the morphology of the acetabular margin and the design of hemispheric acetabular cups used in total hip arthroplasty may produce postoperative hip pain due to an iliopsoas impingement at the iliopsoas notch. This study aimed to determine the anatomical features of the iliopsoas notch in the Central European sample, and to test whether the morphology of the proximal femur affects the size of the iliopsoas notch., Methods: The sample was composed of 40 matched pairs of dry hip bones and corresponding femora. The depth and length of the iliopsoas notch were measured and correlated with the available demographic data. The anthropometric parameters of the proximal femur were calculated using image-analysis software, and their association with the measurements of the iliopsoas notch was tested., Results: The iliopsoas notch was present in all specimens and featured four morphological configurations: curved (61.3%), angular (16.2%), irregular (16.2%), and straight (6.3%). Its size was found to be larger in males (P = 0.014 for depth, P < 0.001 for length). No significant difference existed between the sides. The height and age of the specimens did not correlate with the size of the iliopsoas notch. Furthermore, neither the femoral neck version, the lesser trochanteric version, nor the angle between the neck of the femur and the lesser trochanter influenced the dimensions of the iliopsoas notch., Conclusion: The iliopsoas notch is a consistent landmark of the acetabulum, although its anatomical appearance is widely variable. The iliopsoas notch arrangement cannot be predicted perioperatively based on the morphology of the proximal femur. The various shapes and sex-related differences detected in this study could be used for designing new hip implants or could be utilized during cup positioning in total hip arthroplasty., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature.)

Purpose: Arterial variations of the upper limb may bear high importance for many clinical procedures, including the use of flaps in plastic surgery. We present a feasible way for visualization and confirmation of presence of these variations., Methods: All variations were detected by ultrasonography and confirmed by Color Doppler Imaging. Proper documentation was taken in order to present our findings., Results: We report a case of a 19-year-old female who showed two concomitant arterial variations of the forearm and the hand bilaterally. These two variations were the persistent median artery and the superficial dorsal branch of the radial artery which both significantly contributed to the blood supply of the hand. All examinations were performed by the same investigator and all findings were reviewed by an experienced sonographist., Conclusion: An unusual arrangement of the arterial system can be easily detected. We present a feasible way to prevent iatrogenic injuries and increase utilization of anatomical variants knowledge in surgery by using ultrasound prior to planning surgical procedures., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature.)

Introduction: Anatomical variants observed during the posterior approach to the elbow joint require special attention due to their clinical relevance. We aim to present a compendious review of described variants potentially encountered during the posterior approach towards the elbow joint to the experts in the elbow surgery., Methods: A narrative review of surgical and anatomical textbooks, as well as search of scientific databases was carried out., Results: Variability of the subcutaneous nerves is important during incision planning. Accessory muscles such as dorsoepitrochlearis, chondroepitrochlearis, epitrochleoanconeus, subanconeus or supernumerary flexor carpi ulnaris may confuse even the senior surgeon during the dissection and possibly complicate the fracture reduction. Some bony variants such as supratrochlear foramen may lead to fracture or possibly interfere with the osteosynthesis placement. Accessory bones are also present in the region of the elbow joint. Those situated intra-articular may present with symptoms., Conclusion: Many variants can be encountered in the area of the elbow joint and their knowledge is essential to truly understand its anatomy. The presented review enables easier orientation in the current literature with the aim on the posterior approach towards the elbow joint., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Purpose: To report atypical anatomical variation of an osseous suprascapular canal, and to elaborate on its clinical significance as a potential anatomical factor that could obscure a direct posterior surgical approach and suprascapular nerve block., Methods: Osteological observational study of the scapula with emphasis on the suprascapular space. The pool of investigated sample size was collectively 768 specimens composed of 529 adult dry scapulae (240 paired, 289 un-paired), 54 children dry scapulae, 135 wet scapulae observed during cadaveric dissections, 47 retrospective 3D CT reconstructions, and 3 retrospective full sequence shoulder MRI. The two reported cases came from the 240 (120 skeleton) observed paired scapulae. Furthermore, the osseous suprascapular canal was examined by X-rays and its internal path was exposed by CT sections. A narrative review was conducted to investigate any relevant reports on the subject matter., Results: Two left dry bone scapulae with unilateral osseous suprascapular canal were found. The incidence of this atypical morphology of an osseous canal is probably five cases reported in three studies including this cases study., Conclusions: The reported cases aid in explaining additional possible anatomical factors that could lead to below threshold anesthetic effect in posterior suprascapular nerve block procedures. Therefore, it is more practical to visualize the suprascapular canal by some imaging method before attempting to blindly access the suprascapular nerve in nerve block or posterior surgical approach due to the rare potential existence of an ossified barrier hindering the procedure., Level of Evidence: V Basic Science Research., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature.)

Purpose: The structure of the proximal margin of the superficial layer of the supinator muscle is of high interest to many researches. Its tendinous appearance, called the arcade of Frohse, may be clinically important because of its close relationship to the deep branch of the radial nerve passing beneath it and is considered to be the cause of several syndromes. Given the importance of this structure, we aimed to provide a comprehensive and evidence-based review with meta-analytic techniques., Materials and Methods: The meta-analysis was performed in adherence to the PRISMA guidelines. Three medical databases were searched in order to identify all potentially eligible articles. Included studies were assessed for quality and the extracted morphological and morphometric data from the relevant articles was analyzed with the use of random effects meta-analysis., Results: A total of 20 studies were included into this meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of the arcade of Frohse was calculated to be 66% within the adult population and 0% in the fetuses. Other variations regarding the arcade of Frohse were identified as very rare. Analysis of the morphometric parameters revealed the average proportions to be 23.22 mm for the length, 11.05 mm for the width and the mean thickness is 0.67 mm., Conclusions: The arcade of Frohse is a commonly found structure in adults and thoughtful knowledge of its texture and morphology is especially useful in neurology, neurosurgery, orthopedics, trauma surgery and hand surgery, because it is considered to be the most common source of compression for the deep branch of the radial nerve.

Purpose: Variations of the peripheral nervous system in the upper limb, especially of the musculocutaneous and median nerves, are common, but closer attention to the knowledge of the variant anatomy should be paid to avoid iatrogenic injury or to understand the unusual clinical signs., Methods: During a routine dissection course, bilateral variations were observed in a Central European male cadaver., Results: Variable branching of the musculocutaneous and median nerves associated with atypical innervation of the muscles in the anterior compartment of the arm and other concomitant variations were found bilaterally. In both cases, the musculocutaneous nerve innervated only the coracobrachialis muscle and terminated inside the muscle belly. Branches to the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles arose either directly from the median nerve or its branches. On the right side, two communicating branches between the roots of the median nerve were noted, and a common medial cutaneous trunk originated from the lateral cord. On the left side, a communicating branch extended from the lateral cord to the medial root of the median nerve and a tributary to the axillary vein passed through a window formed by the roots of the median nerve and the communicating branch., Conclusion: There exist only few cases in the literature describing similar variations, but the present arrangement has not yet been reported to the best of our knowledge. With the proposed extension to the existing classification system, we aim to provide clearer orientation in the variability of the musculocutaneous and median nerves.

Purpose: Knowledge of rare variants of the FDP is of high clinical importance for physicians examining patients for tendon lacerations and especially for hand surgeons operating tendon injuries., Methods: During routine dissection at our Department of Anatomy both cases were observed., Results: Variations of flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus muscles of the little finger were observed in two cadavers. In both cases, the flexor digitorum profundus muscle for the little finger was absent. Moreover, in the first case, the flexor digitorum superficialis muscle for the little finger was hypoplastic and in the second case it featured variable insertion., Conclusion: There were found only four cases in previous literature describing absent flexor digitorum profundus tendon without any muscle attachment to the base of the distal phalanx. Furthermore, all previously described cases were observed in living patients. To our best knowledge, a case report in cadaver has yet not been reported and is of high importance for hand surgeons examining the hand for tendon injuries.

Purpose: Knowledge of accessory flexor carpi ulnaris (AFCU) is not only important for proper orientation in the surgical field but it can be used for tendon transfer as well. AFCU commonly occurs with concomitant variants, and its presence should rise caution in order to prevent iatrogenic injury., Methods: During a routine dissection for research data collection at the Institute of Anatomy, a AFCU with concomitant variants was observed in a European cadaver fixed with Thiel's method. A thorough review of the literature concerning all the encountered variants was performed., Results: AFCU was found in the right upper limb with its insertion on the flexor retinaculum. Palmaris longus muscle was absent in this limb, and an accessory branch of the anterior interosseous artery coursed over the pronator quadratus muscle to anastomose with the ulnar artery 5 cm proximally to the pisiform. On the left hand, a variable lumbrical of the second finger originating from the flexor retinaculum was found, which was not described in the literature before., Conclusions: AFCU commonly occurs together with concomitant variants, and special attention is needed when performing surgery on such forearm.

A fresh start of higher medical education in Slovakia and Hungary is closely related to Trnava (Nagyszombat). The University of Trnava had originally been established in 1635 but the Faculty of Medicine was added only later, in 1769, when the name of the university was also changed to Royal Hungarian University of Sciences. A fresh graduate, Václav Trnka from Křovice (1739-1791), was appointed as head of the Department of Anatomy. He was not only an anatomist, but a real polymath of the second half of the eighteenth century practicing medicine as well as becoming the Dean, then the Rector of the University. He has lived and acted within several countries of Central Europe, or rather, the Austrio-Hungarian monarchy during the reign of Empress Maria Theresia, then her son Joseph II. Born in Bohemia (now Czech Republic), studied and graduated in Austria, then finally was appointed as the first Professor of Anatomy of a newly established medical faculty in Upper Hungary (now Slovakia). In 1777, the university was moved first to Buda, then to Pest (now parts of the capital of Hungary), and the Faculty of Medicine was not separated from the rest of the faculties before the end of the Second World War. Following several institutional and name changes, this Medical Faculty is considered as the foundation of the present Semmelweis University. Trnka was a proliferous author, publishing more than 20 monographs covering various branches of clinical medicine, however, no anatomical work may be connected to his activity. And as a typical intellectual of the era, he was a keen and talented musician composing several canons.

Purpose: The aim of the study was to describe the origin of the Latin anatomical term vasa vasorum and its role in current medical research and to present examples of grammatical errors in its use., Methods: Literary searches oriented on the term vasa vasorum were used to identify publications using it in the medical literature from the seventeenth century up to the present., Results: The Latin term vasa vasorum was introduced by Ludwig in 1739. The vasa vasorum became an important topic in clinical research around the middle of the twentieth century, with implications in angiology, cardiology and cardiosurgery. We report 18 grammatical errors concerning the use of the term vasa vasorum, starting from the year 1959. A similar decline in the correct use of Latin terminology is also evident in other medical research disciplines., Conclusions: The numerous errors found in the use of Latin terminology in recent medical literature have occurred as a consequence of decreased use of Latin in the medical community. The only way to improve this situation is by improving awareness of international standard anatomical terminology, which is available worldwide in both Latin and English.

Purpose: This study was designed to investigate the distribution of vasa vasorum in walls of failed aorto-coronary venous grafts., Methods: Fifty-one diseased venous grafts harvested from 39 patients underwent qualitative histological evaluation. The morphology of the grade of the pathological changes and the extent of the vascularisation were examined, and related to the length of the interval between the primary surgery and the explantation. The obtained results were placed into five groups, substantially differing one from the other in morphology and vascularisation., Results: The intervals between grafts implantation and explantation ranged from 1 day to 35 years. The onset of arterialization of the graft media was observed on average at 1 month after bypass implantation. During this same time period massive intimal hyperplasia and atherosclerosis occurred. Vasa vasorum proliferation from the adventitia to the outer layers of the media was first apparent between 7 and 24 months after implantation. Proliferation of the vasa vasorum throughout the entire atherosclerotic media and hyperplastic intima continued for a much longer time interval., Conclusion: No correlation between neoangiogenesis and age, sex or type of bypassed coronary branch was proven. Regarding the given findings, the authors believe that changes in hemodynamic conditions and endothelial trauma are primarily responsible for the development of graft disease and that vasa vasorum proliferation is only a secondary reaction to the structural changes of the graft wall. To what extent the frequently present pre-existing intimal hyperplasia of venous bypass grafts play in the development of graft disease remains questionable.

Purpose: The aim of this article is to extend and revise the sections of Terminologia Anatomica (TA) dealing with the lower limb structures and to justify the use of newly proposed anatomical terms in clinical medicine, education, and research., Methods: Anatomical terms were gathered during our educational experience from anatomical textbooks and journals and compared with the four previous editions of the official Latin anatomical nomenclature., Results: The authors summarise 270 terms with their definitions and explanations for both constant and variable morphological structures (bones, joints, muscles, vessels, nerves and superficial structures) of the hip, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, and foot completed with several grammatical remarks and some general anatomical terms., Conclusion: The proposed terms should be discussed in wider anatomical community and potentially added to next edition of the TA.

A thorough understanding of the anatomy, physiology, and development of the spleen is essential for determining the pathophysiological mechanisms underpinning splenic diseases and congenital variations. The aim of this review is to briefly summarize current knowledge regarding the normal development of the spleen, and to provide an overview of clinically relevant congenital splenic variations. These include such variations as asplenia, polysplenia, hyposplenia, lobulation of spleen, accessory spleens, accessory splenic nodules, wandering spleen, splenogonadal and splenopancreatic fusion, splenic cysts, and cavernous haemangioma of the spleen. All of these congenital variations are also mentioned in internationally accepted embryological nomenclature, known as the Terminologia Embryologica. Interestingly, most patients who have these diseases are asymptomatic, and are often diagnosed only after an injury or during unrelated medical procedures. Using examples from published case reports, we highlight how an understanding of the embryology of the spleen and the etiology of its disease states would improve clinical practice.

This article highlights an unusual and unilateral variation in the blood supply to the inferior portion of the thyroid gland observed on the right lobe during anatomy dissection course. The rare variation of the occurrence of two anomalous arteries: the middle thyroid artery and the aberrant accessory inferior thyroid artery, and one uncommon variant, the thyroid ima artery, was detected in an adult female cadaver. The two generally constant arteries, the superior thyroid artery and the inferior thyroid artery, have been found in their usual anatomical location. Both the middle thyroid artery and aberrant accessory inferior thyroid artery arose from the right common carotid artery. The middle thyroid artery coursed as a very short branch ventromedially to enter the inferior lateral portion of the right lobe of the thyroid gland. It was at the same level, in which the inferior thyroid artery reached the lateral border of the thyroid gland. The aberrant accessory inferior thyroid artery originated similarly, from the ventromedial surface of the right common carotid artery and passed to supply the inferior pole of the right lobe. The thyroid ima artery was found to arise from the brachiocephalic trunk, entering the isthmus of the thyroid gland. Information about the embryological background might be helpful to clarify why such a type of variation occurs. It is necessary to understand the possible existence of this anomaly, to carry out successful radical neck dissection and to minimize the risk of postoperative complications in patients.

Purpose: The aim of this article is to revise and extend the existing sections of Terminologia Anatomica dealing with the upper limb structures, which nomenclature belongs to its most neglected and not developing parts, and to justify the use of the proposed anatomical terms in the clinical practice, research, and education., Methods: A sample collected from own educational and research experience was matched in the main anatomical textbooks as well as old and recent anatomical journals and compared with four versions of the official Latin anatomical nomenclatures., Results: The authors summarize here 145 terms, completed with their definitions or explanations, concerning both constant and variable (inconstant) morphological structures (bones, joints, muscles, vessels, and nerves) of the pectoral girdle, arm, cubital region, forearm, wrist, and hand, completed with some grammar remarks and several general terms., Conclusion: After a broad discussion on this topic, the Terminologia Anatomica should be revised and extend with the listed terms (or their equivalents).

We have found an interesting coincidental variation of the superficial branch of the radial nerve and the brachioradialis muscle in a male cadaver. The superficial branch of the radial nerve was duplicated with one branch taking an aberrant course between two bellies of the brachioradialis muscle. The variant brachioradialis muscle featured two muscle bellies, a superficial one and a deep one, with one common origin and one common insertional tendon. The accessory nerve branch was impinged by two blood vessels and pierced through muscle bundles connecting two bellies of the brachioradialis muscle. The knowledge of this neuromuscular variant is of clinical relevance for the differential diagnosis of pain and paresthesia on the dorsoradial aspect of the hand and for the surgical management of the Wartenberg's syndrome.

Nomenclature of the general and variant anatomy belongs to the most neglected parts of the Latin anatomical nomenclature in Terminologia Anatomica. Although many important small structures are included in Terminologia Anatomica, when describing and teaching particular anatomy of any part of the human body, the general terms are necessary, such as planes, lines and flexion grooves. Moreover, Terminologia Anatomica contains only 149 terms of variant structures, enlisted in the parentheses to differentiate them from constant ones. They are only a rather representative selection and some more should be added, both from the educational and clinical point of view. The authors present some terms, completed with their definitions or explanations concerning the general and variant anatomy to evoke broader discussion on this topic which should issue in incorporation of proposed terms (or their equivalents) into the Terminologia Anatomica.

Purpose: Proximal femoral fractures are among the most commonly sustained fractures. The current treatment of stable proximal femoral fractures located in trochanteric region primarily involves the use of two systems: extramedullary dynamic hip screws and intramedullary hip nails. Given that these fractures are mainly found in the elderly population, the necessity of a repeat, due to failure of the first, may jeopardize the patient's life. Decisive factors contributing to the healing of a fracture (or the failure thereof) include fracture pattern, technical implementation of the operation (i.e., position of the implant), implant's properties and its changes in relation to the surrounding bone tissue during loading. Each screw insertion variant results in damage to various load-bearing bone structures, which can be expected to influence healing quality and stability of newly formed bone., Method: With the aid of a numerical model and finite element methods, the authors analyzed several different positions of IMHN/PFH-nails in the proximal femur, with the objective of determining positions with an increased risk of failure., Results and Conclusion: In model situations, it has been shown that in stable fractures results do not depend on absolutely precise positioning and small deflections in the nails and neck screws positions do not significantly increase the risk of failure for the entire fixation. Damage to load-bearing structures relative to various implant placements does not impact the resultant overall fixation stability. Therefore, it is not necessary to re-introduce implants in the ideal position, which can lead to reduced patient radiation doses during surgery.

We present a unique unilateral case of a superficial brachiomedian artery that coincides with a variable palmaris longus muscle in a male cadaver. The superficial brachiomedian artery branched at the distal part of the right arm and coursed superficially in the cubital and antebrachial regions. Then it passed through the carpal canal and formed a complete superficial palmar arch by joining the trunk of the ulnar artery. The variable bitendinous palmaris longus was composed of a central belly and two asymmetrical tendons inserting mainly on the ulnar side of the flexor retinaculum. The knowledge of this arterial variant is of high clinical relevance for the catheterization, for the harvesting of the forearm artery as a graft, for the collateral circulation in cases of arterial occlusion, for surgical management of the carpal tunnel syndrome, or in cases of injury of the superficially located variant artery.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of congenital malformations of the lumbosacral transitional vertebrae in the general population, and the differences in their gender and left/right distributions., Methods: The examined group comprised of all patients who underwent a pelvic X-ray during 2010 for any reason. The observed parameters included the following malformations: the presence of megatransversus at L5; sacralization of L5 or L6; a S1 lumbarization; the presence of six sacral vertebrae; or spina bifida at the level of L5, S1 or S2. In cases of megatransversus at L5, the lateral distribution was recorded. A total of 1,513 images were evaluated. Sex and lateral differences were evaluated using the Pearson's (χ (2)) test with a significance level of 5 %., Results and Conclusions: A total of 478 malformations were found in 417 patients, which constituted 27.6 % of the entire group. Malformations occurred in 250 women (25.4 % of all women) and 167 men (31.6 % of all men) and the female to male ratio in affected individuals was 1.5:1. The predominance of the occurrence of malformations observed in men was statistically significant (p = 0.009). The most frequently occurring malformations were the presence of six sacral vertebrae (179 patients) and megatransversus at L5 (150 patients). The study confirmed a high incidence of congenital malformations in the area of the lumbosacral transitional vertebrae and demonstrated a higher incidence in males. Unilaterally occurring megatransversus at L5 was significantly more common on the left side.

Purpose: The purpose of our work was to verify the hypothesis that muscle insertions and ligament attachments have an impact on the course of typical break lines in the area of the trochanteric massif, i.e., to provide a more detailed description of the origins and insertions of the musculo-ligamentous apparatus on the surface of the proximal femur, and to find a potential morphological correlate between muscle insertions and ligament attachments to the proximal femur and the course of the break line in a typical pertrochanteric fracture., Methods: A detailed dissection of areas of trochanter major et minor, linea et crista intertrochanterica was performed in 50 anatomical preparations of the proximal femur, and the insertions of the muscular-ligamentous structures were described. The set of 600 radiographs were used to obtain projections of typical break lines on the proximal femur, and corresponding areas of exposed bone surface were identified in the anatomical preparations based on the projections and on 15 real specimens of patients after the pertrochanteric fracture osteosynthesis., Results and Conclusion: Bone covered only with the periosteum, with no reinforcing elements of the origin or insertions of muscles or attachments of ligaments, represents the locus minoris resistentiae for beginning of fractures. Variability in the sizes and shapes of pertrochanteric fracture fragments also depends on variability of the locations and sizes of soft tissue attachment areas at specified sites on the proximal femur.

This article presents a detailed chronology regarding the development of terminology relating to the calcaneal tendon, from ancient times to modern day nomenclature. The notable contributions of Flemish anatomist Philip Verheyen, French surgeon Jean-Louis Petit, German anatomist and surgeon Lorenz Heister, along with the actual origin of the famous anatomical eponym "Achilles tendon" are analysed. During the study of the aforementioned authors, it was revealed that the term was first adopted, in its original French form, by J.-L. Petit in 1705 and later in 1717, in its Latin form, by L. Heister.

The anatomical terminology is a base for medical communication. It is elaborated into a nomenclature in Latin. Its history goes back to 1895, when the first Latin anatomical nomenclature was published as Basiliensia Nomina Anatomica. It was followed by seven revisions (Jenaiensia Nomina Anatomica 1935, Parisiensia Nomina Anatomica 1955, Nomina Anatomica 2nd to 6th edition 1960-1989). The last revision, Terminologia Anatomica, (TA) created by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology and approved by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists, was published in 1998. Apart from the official Latin anatomical terminology, it includes a list of recommended English equivalents. In this article, major changes and pitfalls of the nomenclature are discussed, as well as the clinical anatomy terms. The last revision (TA) is highly recommended to the attention of not only teachers, students and researchers, but also to clinicians, doctors, translators, editors and publishers to be followed in their activities.

The goal of the study was to perform a detailed anatomical description of the retrocalcaneal bursa (RB). Its morphological arrangement was studied on 10 fresh and 30 embalmed lower extremities by microdissection and light microscopy. The RB was present constantly and in all the cases contained 1-2 cm long synovial fold, beginning on the upper wall of RB and distally interposed between the anterior surface of the Achilles tendon and the posterior surface of the calcaneal tuberosity. The volume of RB was 1-1.5 ml. The histological analysis confirmed that the inner surface of the superior and posterior wall of RB have been covered by unilayered synovial membrane, projecting into synovial villi of different shapes and sizes. In the ceiling of RB, delicate fascicle of skeletal muscle fibers was discovered, radiating distally into the regularly present synovial fold. The whole bottom of RB has been covered by 200-500 microm layer of fibrous cartilage into which the calcaneal tendon attached. The cartilagineous layer continued anteroproximally to cover the whole bursal surface of the calcaneal tuberosity, where the thickness of the cortical bone was reduced on mere 50 microm. The obtained results can be used in the improvement of the differential diagnostics and therapy of diagnostics and therapy of the retrocalcaneal bursitis as well as of other kinds of achillar enthesopathies and heel pain.