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The distal biceps tendon (DBT) anatomy is complex, and its structural and insertional morphology has surgical implications. The DBT has long and short tendon components, and these show three variable insertional footprints into the radial tuberosity. The DBT insertion passes through the proximal radioulnar space (RUS) during dynamic rotation, and an alteration in RUS or DBT dimensions may predispose to impingement and wear. The DBT is closely related to neurovascular structures of the cubital fossa, and these structures are potentially at risk during open and endoscopic surgery. Detailed knowledge of the structural, insertional, and neurovascular anatomy of the DBT is necessary to safely replicate DBT kinematics during repair and reconstructive surgery for distal biceps pathology.

Biceps endoscopy is a minimally invasive procedure for diagnosis and definitive treatment of a wide variety of distal biceps tendon (DBT) pathology. The “all-endoscopic” approach devised by the author is a new and safe technique for repair and reconstruction of distal biceps tears. The “parabiceps portal” visualizes the entire repair process that is performed via the “distal anterior portal.” Chronic retracted tears can be endoscopically mobilized from the arm using a “mid-biceps portal,” and the tendon can be passed across the cubital fossa into the forearm. Cadaveric studies have established the safety of the portals and technique. The all-endoscopic DBT repair technique can be safely performed using suture anchors, buttons, and interference screws.

Biceps endoscopy is a new frontier in minimally invasive elbow surgery. The technique was originally used for diagnostic evaluation of distal biceps pathology only and has now evolved into an all-endoscopic procedure with therapeutic applications. Endoscopic techniques are useful for debridement and reinsertion of partial distal biceps tears, and complete ruptures can also be safely repaired or reconstructed. The advantages and potential pitfalls have been identified in cadaveric and clinical experience, and knowledge of the principles and technical variations of biceps endoscopy is necessary prior to the transition from open to endoscopic procedures around the distal biceps.

Lateral epicondylitis is a common overuse enthesopathy of the extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) that can infrequently result in a recalcitrant disabling and painful condition. Surgical intervention is necessary if conservative treatment fails to provide relief, and open and arthroscopic approaches have been described. Arthroscopy provides a comprehensive approach to intra-articular and extra-articular pathology and has several advantages: (a) ECRB release and debridement is performed without a takedown of the common extensor origin, (b) associated intra-articular pathology (synovitis, plica, chondral wear) can be assessed and treated simultaneously, (c) calcific deposits in the common extensor origin can be removed, and (d) early mobilization is possible as repair and subsequent protection of the common extensor origin is not necessary.

Radial head fractures often require excision in the acute or chronic setting. Elbow arthroscopy is useful for removal of comminuted fragments in acute isolated radial head fractures. Similarly, arthroscopic resection of a malunited and incongruous radial head is a minimally invasive method for management of chronic radiocapitellar pathology. Arthroscopy provides access for evaluation and concurrent treatment of any associated intra-articular pathology and may also be used to retrieve any fixation implants from the radial head and capitellum [1, 2].

The prefrontal cortex has long been regarded as a major integrative subdivision of the forebrain. In particular, the results of clinical, experimental, and neuroimaging studies have established a role for this region in a variety of functions, such as planning and sequencing, emotional significance, attention, and representational memory. One question that arises is whether the discrete functions ascribed to the prefrontal cortex represent circumscribed processes at the neural level — that is, are subserved by a specific cortical subsector — or are dependent on the interactions of different prefrontal regions. A broader issue is the degree to which functions that appear to have the prefrontal cortex as a critical focus depend upon interactions with post-Rolandic cortices. Knowledge of the morphological characteristics of the prefrontal cortex may provide further insight into the underlying nature of these cognitive-behavioral functions. Therefore, in examining a complex process such as decision-making from a neural perspective, it may be beneficial to consider functional components in the context of cellular as well as connectional features of prefrontal areas.

A number of theories have been suggested to account for the genesis of seizures. For example, seizures could arise as a result of disinhibition of reciprocal cortical pathways. Alternatively, it could be that an overactivation of afferent and efferent cortical pathways is the basis of seizure phenomena. Another notion proposes that seizures arise from antidromic stimulation of cortical axons of passage which course through deeper structures. Finally, seizures could result from an abnormal reorganization of higher pathways during development. Thus, it seems that seizures could arise from any point in the cortex as a result of any one of these possible mechanisms. Nevertheless, the most common site of seizure genesis is in the deep structures of the temporal and frontal lobes. In this chapter, we wish to present an anatomical viewpoint on how these cortical structures, especially in the temporal lobe, may underlie various seizure phenomena.