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The near and far transfer effects of Working Memory (WM) training have yielded discrepant findings while there is no literature on the effects of Executive Working Memory (EWM) training. The present study aimed to investigate the far transfer effects of EWM on cognitive flexibility. Community participants (n = 144) were allocated into a fully-, a partially-trained or a control group. At a baseline assessment, all groups were administered the Wisconsin Card Sorting test and Letter-Number Sequencing (LNS). Following this and for six consecutive days, the fully-trained group were administered the complete LNS, the partially-trained group were administered the LNS up to the three-digit strings while the control group had no involvement in the study. Upon completion of training, all groups were administered the Intra/Extra-Dimensional Shift task (ID/ED). The control group (a) made more errors and completed fewer stages compared with the fully-trained group and (b) had increased response latency and required more trials to complete the ID/ED compared to both the partially- and fully-trained groups. In the total sample, (a) the lack of EWM training was associated with more total errors, trials required to complete the ID/ED, extradimensional-shift errors and prolonged response latency and (b) extended short-term EWM training was associated with more completed stages in the ID/ED. The findings support the far transfer effects of EWM training on cognitive flexibility and are in agreement with studies on WM training. Although preliminary, they hold promise for the enhancement of early intervention programs in populations with cognitive impairments., Author(s): Vasiliki Stavroulaki [sup.1] , Kyriaki Sidiropoulou [sup.2] [sup.3] , Panos Bitsios [sup.1] , Stella G. Giakoumaki [sup.4] [sup.5] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.8127.c, 0000 0004 0576 3437, Department of Psychiatry [...]

Physical activities have a great role in the physical health of children; however, their role in the brain development and the cognitive functions of children has not been widely investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study is investigating the mediating role of alpha, beta and theta brainwaves in the relationship between the physical activity and the executive function of healthy children. In the present study, in a sample of 133 children, aged 6 to 12 years (M.sub.age:9.45 ± 0.87, 54.89% boys), the duration of physical activity, the daily executive function and electroencephalograph were used for measuring the brainwaves in the resting state. The results showed that there is a direct and positive relationship between the physical activity and the daily executive function of children (p = 0.001 and [beta] = 460, t = 9.34). In addition, there is a positive and significant relationship between the physical activity and alpha ([beta] = 0.45, t = 9.03) and beta ([beta] = 0.38, t = 7.73) waves. Moreover, there is a positive and significant relationship between the daily executive function and alpha ([beta] = 0.45, t = 9.03) and beta ([beta] = 0.38, t = 7.73) waves. Therefore, alpha and beta waves could mediate the relationship between the duration of physical activity and the executive function of children; while, the theta wave could not. It is recommended that to develop physical activity time based on the needs of executive function. Moreover, to boost the theta brainwave, use more complicated cognitive activities and to set time limitations in cognitive task., Author(s): Seyedeh Manizheh Arabi [sup.1] , Sakineh Soltani Kouhbanani [sup.2] , Vahideh Velayati Haghighi [sup.3] , Monireh Asadi Ghaleni [sup.3] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.411807.b, 0000 0000 9828 9578, Department of [...]

Executive functions are critical decision-making capabilities that depend on the integrity of the prefrontal cortex. This cortical region and its dependent functions are in full development and formation during adolescence. Therefore, cognitive and educational interventions have the potential to influence the development of executive functions during this evolutionary period. We aimed to explore the effects of cognitive reflection versus typical educational interventions on executive functions in teenage students. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three interventions: cognitive reflection group (CRG), educational task group (ETG), non-intervention group (NIG). Cognitive reflection tasks, typical school tasks, and no added educational intervention, were the respective interventions in each group. The neuropsychological battery of executive functions and frontal lobes (BANFE), which allows for the evaluation of executive functions dependent on specific prefrontal regions, was used in this study. Scores in general executive functions and scores related to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPF) were increased after the intervention in all groups, except in the ETG. However, when functions typically associated with the anterior prefrontal cortex (APF) were analyzed separately, the post-intervention scores significantly increased only in the ETG group. These findings suggest that certain educational interventions can interfere with those executive functions related to the DLPF but they can improve the APF-dependent executive functions., Author(s): Karina Alicia Bermudez-Rivera [sup.1] , Andrés Molero-Chamizo [sup.2] , G. Nathzidy Rivera-Urbina [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.412852.8, 0000 0001 2192 0509, Autonomous University of Baja California, , Blvd Juan [...]

This study investigated mean differences in real-world executive functioning (real-world-EF) for those with and without the Broad Autism Phenotype (BAP), correlations between real-world-EF and BAP traits, and real-world-EF predictors of BAP traits. Also examined was a sub-sample of parents of children with autism (n = 42) vs. parents of children with other developmental disabilities (n = 36). The BAP group (n = 28) had higher scores, and more people with clinically significant scores (t-scores [greater than or equal to] 65), than the Non-BAP group (n = 118) on all Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning-Adult (BRIEF-A) scales except Organization of Materials and Inhibition. When compared with parents of children with various non-autism developmental disabilities, parents of children with autism had similar means and proportions of people with clinically significant scores on all BRIEF-A scales. Inhibition, Shift, Working Memory, and Plan/Organize were correlated with Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ) scores. Pragmatic Language demonstrated consistent higher correlations with the most real-world-EF scales. Regressions revealed Shift as a significant predictor for all BAPQ scores. Findings underscore the importance of individual BAP-trait evaluation, investigation of the practical significance of mean differences, the pervasiveness of Shift weaknesses in the BAP, and the possibility for interventions based on intact areas of functioning., Author(s): Amy Camodeca [sup.1] [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.267455.7, 0000 0004 1936 9596, Psychology Deparment, University of Windsor, , 401 Sunset Ave., N9B 3P4, Windsor, ON, Canada (2) grid.29857.31, 0000 [...]

The contribution of motor efficiency to the maintenance of psychological well-being in cognitively impaired older individuals is still insufficiently examined. This investigation primarily intended to evaluate whether muscular strength mediates the relationship between different facets of psychological well-being (i.e., personal satisfaction, emotional competence, coping), negative mood, and central executive efficiency through the Clock-Drawing, Trail-Making (Part A), and verbal fluency tests. Furthermore, the impact of cognitive decline on self-reported psychological well-being and depression was explored, using the handgrip strength (HGS) measure as a covariate. One hundred and nineteen older participants, 44 males and 75 females, aged 63 years and older (M.sub.age = 77.7 years, SD = 5.6 years), completed a battery of tests assessing executive functions, HGS, depression, and psychological well-being. Significant low to moderate associations were found between distinct executive functions, HGS, psychological well-being, and depression. In addition, personal satisfaction did not correlate with any measure of executive functions, the clock-drawing score was associated only with coping index, and self-reported depression correlated only with the Trail-Making Test score. Moreover, a series of mediation analyses documented that executive functions (primarily assessing verbal fluency and motor speed) and HGS explained approximately 20-46% of the variance in perceived psychological well-being and depression. Finally, more cognitively impaired participants reported worse total psychological well-being, emotional competence, and coping. In conclusion, motor proficiency mediates the relationship between selective measures of executive functions and perceived psychological well-being and depression in cognitively impaired individuals., Author(s): Maria Chiara Fastame [sup.1] , Ilaria Mulas [sup.2] , Valeria Putzu [sup.3] , Gesuina Asoni [sup.3] , Daniela Viale [sup.3] , Irene Mameli [sup.3] , Massimiliano Pau [sup.2] Author [...]

This study is an examination of similarities and discrepancies between performance-based measures and ratings (parents and teachers) of executive function in children. Data were collected from 200 Turkish children (103 boys) and, their parents and teachers. Children's ages ranged from 36 to 71 months (M = 54.01, SD = 9.65). Parents and teachers reported on children's executive function using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire and Children's Executive Functioning Inventory. We used eight structured tasks of The Executive Function Touch to assess children's performance-based executive function. Primarily, based on confirmatory factor analysis, the unidimensional structure of the EF Touch was confirmed with Turkish children. Poor agreement between performance-based and ratings (parents and teachers) was found. In addition, there were also discrepancies between parents and teachers in their ratings of children's executive function. These observed discrepancies highlight the importance of multi-informant measures of children's executive function for comprehensive understanding., Author(s): Beyza Hamamci [sup.1] , Ibrahim H. Acar [sup.2] , Gulden Uyanik [sup.3] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.506076.2, 0000 0004 1797 5496, Department of Early Childhood Education, Hasan Âli Yücel Faculty [...]

The goal is to test the validity of the 'Will to exist-live and survive (WTELS) as a master motivator that activates executive functions. A sample of 262 adults administered different measures that included WTELS and executive functions. We conducted hierarchical regressions with working memory deficits (WMD) and inhibition deficits (ID) as dependent variables. We entered in the last steps resilience and WTELS as independent variables. We conducted path analysis with WTELS as independent variables and WMD and ID as outcome variables and resilience and social support as mediating variables. WTELS accounted for the high effect size for lower working memory deficits and medium effect size for lower inhibition deficits. In path analysis, the effects of WTELS on decreased WMD were direct, while its effects on the ID were indirect. PROCESS analysis indicated that WTELS was directly associated with lower depression, anxiety, PTSD, and COVID-19 traumatic stress, and its indirect effects were mediated by lower executive function deficits (Kira et al., Psych 12:992-1024 2021c (See CR39), Kira et al., in press (See CR40)). The path model discussed was generally superior to the alternative models and was strictly invariant across genders (male/ female)., Author(s): Ibrahim A. Kira [sup.1] , Yunus Emre Ayna [sup.2] , Hanaa A. M. Shuwiekh [sup.3] , Jeffrey S. Ashby [sup.4] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.256304.6, 0000 0004 1936 7400, Center [...]

The pervasiveness of smartphone engagement among young adults has attracted growing interest regarding its impact on cognitive processes. However, research on the relation between smartphone use and executive function (EF)-a set of adaptive, goal-directed control processes-remains inconclusive due to imprecise estimation of EF dimensions and inconsistent operationalisation of smartphone use in past studies. Therefore, we examined how two indices of smartphone use-screen time and checking frequency-would predict EF (common EF, shifting-specific-, and working-memory-specific components), using a latent-variable approach based on a comprehensive battery of EF tasks. We also examined the moderating role of problematic smartphone use in the link between smartphone use and EF components. We found that screen time positively predicted working-memory-specific and shifting-specific abilities, whereas frequent checking was associated with enhanced shifting-specific, but poorer common EF, abilities. Importantly, problematic smartphone use moderated the relation between checking frequency and common EF. Overall, our findings demonstrate that different indices of smartphone use asymmetrically predict EF facets, thereby highlighting the construct distinctiveness of the various markers of smartphone engagement. Our findings imply that checking frequency and problematic use, rather than screen time, are the most promising targets for interventions that aim to circumvent cognitive impairments by curtailing smartphone use, especially in educational settings., Author(s): Wei Xing Toh [sup.1] , Wee Qin Ng [sup.1] , Hwajin Yang [sup.1] , Sujin Yang [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.412634.6, 0000 0001 0697 8112, School of Social Sciences, [...]

Eye contact is a crucial aspect of social interactions that may enhance an individual's cognitive performance (i.e. the eye contact effect) or hinder it (i.e. face-to-face interference effect). In this paper, I focus on the influence of eye contact on cognitive performance in tasks engaging executive functions. I present a hypothesis as to why some individuals benefit from eye contact while others do not. I propose that the relations between eye contact and executive functioning are modulated by an individual's autonomic regulation and reactivity and self-regulation of attention. In particular, I propose that individuals with more optimal autonomic regulation and reactivity, and more effective self-regulation of attention benefit from eye contact. Individuals who are less well regulated and over- or under-reactive and who do not employ effective strategies of self-regulation of attention may not benefit from eye contact and may perform better when eye contact is absent. I present some studies that justify the proposed hypothesis and point to a method that could be employed to test them. This approach could help to better understand the complex mechanisms underlying the individual differences in participant's cognitive performance during tasks engaging executive functions., Author(s): Alicja Niedzwiecka [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.12847.38, 0000 0004 1937 1290, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, , Stawki 5/7, 01-121, Warsaw, Poland This paper presents a hypothesis regarding [...]

This study examined the inter-relationships among posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, cognitive bias, executive functioning deficits, and intimate partner violence (IPV) outcomes in a sample of 104 military veterans who had served in conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. Veteran participants completed questionnaires, a neuropsychological assessment, and a laboratory procedure assessing social information (SIP) processing biases during a single assessment, and collateral reports of IPV from intimate partners were obtained for 69 participants via telephone interviews. Findings indicated that executive functioning deficits in the areas of inhibition and impulsivity were associated with increased risk for all IPV perpetration outcomes, and these risk factors also moderated the association between cognitive bias and psychological IPV. Cognitive inflexibility also appeared to moderate the associations between both PTSD symptoms and cognitive bias with injurious IPV, though the latter moderated relationship was marginally significant. Findings suggest the salience of executive functioning deficits with respect to understanding IPV perpetration risk from a trauma-informed, SIP perspective, and highlight several possible clinical strategies that may enhance intervention., Author(s): Hannah E. Cole [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Ohad Gilbar [sup.2] [sup.3] , Katherine E. Gnall [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Christopher I. Eckhardt [sup.4] , Casey T. Taft [sup.1] [sup.2] [...]

This manuscript aimed to advance our understanding of inhibitory control (IC) in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), adopting a meta-analytic multilevel approach. The first meta-analysis, on 164 studies adopting direct measures, indicated a significant small-to-medium (g = 0.484) deficit in the group with ASD (n = 5140) compared with controls (n = 6075). Similar effect sizes between response inhibition and interference control were found, but they were differentially affected by intellectual functioning and age. The second meta-analysis, on 24 studies using indirect measures, revealed a large deficit (g = 1.334) in the group with ASD (n = 985) compared with controls (n = 1300). Presentation format, intellectual functioning, and age were significant moderators. The effect of comorbidity with ADHD was not statistically significant. Implications are discussed for IC research and practice in autism., Author(s): Irene Tonizzi [sup.1] , David Giofrè [sup.1] , Maria Carmen Usai [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.5606.5, 0000 0001 2151 3065, Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, , Corso [...]

Executive function (EF) is a concept widely used to describe higher order cognitive functioning. However, the concept seems to lack a precise definition upon which even experts in the area can agree. Examples of existing definitions describe EF as capacities for independent self-serving behavior and aspects of working memory, planning and organizational skills. It has been argued that the definition of EF is too imprecise, in terms of informing effective interventions. To possibly understand the range of behaviors termed EF in a more workable way, we administered a well-known computerized test (the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; WCST) of EF to a sample of normal functioning participants (n =11). During administration, they were asked questions about their ways of thinking. Transcriptions of questions and answers were analyzed in search of common patterns, using a behavioral theory of language and cognition (relational frame theory; RFT). The analysis suggested that a specific relationship between deictic and temporal framing, on the one hand, and coordination and spatial framing, on the other, was in effect when participants performed well on the WCST. At critical time points during the test (i.e., when need for EF was arguably most acute), deictic and temporal framing dominated participants' behavior, whereas coordination and spatial framing were used relatively less. Keywords Executive function * Relational frame theory - Wisconsin Card Sorting Test * Behavior therapy, In an article dealing with the central tenets of contextual behavioral science, Wilson (2016) makes a statement that is deceivingly simple: 'Terms are merely ways of speaking' (p. 62). Indeed, [...]

Among pain researchers there is a growing interest in the relationship between psychological resilience and pain experience. Whereas much of this work has focused on individual differences in pain perception or sensitivity, an equally important dimension of resilience is the capacity to persist with goal-directed activity despite experiencing pain. Consistent with this latter focus, the current study examined how pain resilience and pain catastrophizing combine to moderate the effects of ischemic pain on short-term memory task performance. Using a within-subjects design, 121 healthy participants completed four trials of a Corsi block-tapping task with pain exposure during the second and fourth trials. Results indicated that a combination of high pain resilience and low pain catastrophizing was associated with better task performance during the second pain exposure. These findings confirm existing evidence that resilience can moderate performance during pain, and offer new evidence that resilience and catastrophizing interact to shape this effect., Author(s): Dominic W. Ysidron [sup.1] , Janis L. France [sup.1] , Lina K. Himawan [sup.1] , Christopher R. France [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.20627.31, 0000 0001 0668 7841, Department of [...]

Weight loss maintenance is a complex, multifaceted process that presents a significant challenge for most individuals who lose weight. A growing body of literature indicates a strong relationship between cognitive dysfunction and excessive body weight, and suggests that a subset of high-order cognitive processes known as executive functions (EF) likely play an important role in weight management. Recent reviews cover neuropsychological correlates of weight status yet fail to address the role of executive function in the central dilemma of successful weight loss maintenance. In this paper, we provide an overview of the existing literature examining executive functions as they relate to weight status and initial weight loss. Further, we propose a novel conceptual model of the relationships between EF, initial weight loss, and weight loss maintenance, mapping specific executive functions onto strategies known to be associated with both phases of the weight control process. Implications for the development of more efficacious weight loss maintenance interventions are discussed., Author(s): Katelyn M. Gettens [sup.1] , Amy A. Gorin [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) University of Connecticut, 0000 0001 0860 4915, grid.63054.34, , Storrs, CT, USA Obesity is one of the [...]

Prospective memory (remembering to carry out an action in the future) has been studied relatively little in ASD. We explored time-based (carry out an action at a pre-specified time) and event-based (carry out an action upon the occurrence of a pre-specified event) prospective memory, as well as possible cognitive correlates, among 21 intellectually high-functioning children with ASD, and 21 age- and IQ-matched neurotypical comparison children. We found impaired time-based, but undiminished event-based, prospective memory among children with ASD. In the ASD group, time-based prospective memory performance was associated significantly with diminished theory of mind, but not with diminished cognitive flexibility. There was no evidence that time-estimation ability contributed to time-based prospective memory impairment in ASD. Keywords Autism * Prospective memory * Theory of mind * Executive functioning * Cognitive flexibility * Set-shifting * Time-perception, Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder diagnosed on the basis of significant behavioural impairments in social interaction, communication, and behavioural flexibility (American Psychiatric Association 2000; World Health [...]

This study examined if task motivational imagery suggestions could facilitate a semantic priming effect, relative to general relaxation suggestions and no specific suggestions; and if the participants' hypnotizablity moderated the effects of the three types of instructions. Participants (n = 127) were assigned randomly in groups to one of the three instructional conditions (imagery, relaxation, or control) and two versions of a stimulus list for counterbalancing. A 3-way analysis of variance suggested that the semantic priming effect was found to be stronger for stimulus list version 2 than for version 1. A stronger semantic priming effect was found for the high, relative to the low and medium, hypnotizable groups. When medium hypnotizable participants were excluded, an instructional group X hypnotizability group interaction was found for list 1 suggesting that while the low hypnotizable participants benefited more from the relaxation suggestion, the high hypnotizables benefited more from the imagery instruction. The results suggest that imagery instructions may moderate automatic processes for highly hypnotizable individuals. Keywords Automatic processes, Semantic priming, Imagery, Automatic and Controlled Cognitive Processing Automatic cognitive processes affect our everyday functioning in ways that we are not aware of. For example, for most adults, reading is not the chore [...]

We examined the relationships between executive functioning, family environment, and parenting practices in children diagnosed with ADHD as compared to children without ADHD. Participants were parents (N = 134) of 6- to 12-year-old ADHD and non-ADHD-diagnosed children. Compared to the control group, parents of children diagnosed with ADHD reported their children as exhibiting greater problems with behavioral control and metacognitive abilities, and described their family environments as less organized and higher in family conflict. Family environment and parenting practices were not correlated with behavioral control or metacognitive abilities in children with ADHD. In children without ADHD, higher levels of family cohesion, organization, and expressiveness, and lower levels of family conflict, were significantly correlated with greater behavioral control. Higher levels of family cohesion and organization were significantly and positively associated with regulation of metacognitive abilities in children without ADHD. In general, aspects of the family environment and parental limit setting appear to be associated with the development of executive functions in children not diagnosed with ADHD; however, family environment and parenting practices were not associated with executive functions in children diagnosed with ADHD. Keywords ADHD. Executive function * Family environment * Parenting * Self-control

Performance on task switching, a paradigm commonly used to measure executive function, has been shown to improve with practice. However, no study has tested whether these benefits are specific to the tasks learned or are transferable to new situations. We report evidence of transferable improvement in a cued, randomly switching paradigm as measured by mixing cost, but we report no consistent improvement for switch cost. Improvement in mixing costs arises from a relative reduction in time to perform both switch and nonswitch trials that immediately follow switch trials, implicating the ability to recover from unexpected switches as the source of improvement. These results add to a growing number of studies demonstrating generalizable improvement with training on executive processing.

In previous studies of task switching and of the right-left prevalence effect, researchers have used a procedure in which the stimulus on each trial occurs in one of four quadrants, and responses are made by pressing one of two diagonally arranged response keys. Across these studies, discrepant effects of cuing interval have been reported. These discrepancies need clarification because cue-based preparation effects are frequently interpreted as reflecting cognitive control processes. In Experiment 1, we compared performance with display formats used by Meiran (1996; Meiran, Chorev, & Sapir, 2000; small display, cues located at sides of quadrants and displayed until response) to study task switching and by Proctor and colleagues (Proctor, Koch, & Vu, 2006; large display, cues located at center of display and shown until target onset) to study right-left prevalence. We found a decrease in task- switch cost with increasing cuing interval with the Meiran display, but not with the Proctor display, but the right-left prevalence effect was of similar size for the two display formats and was relatively unaffected by cuing interval. To determine the basis of the discrepant task-switch results, we used small and large displays in Experiments 2 and 3, respectively, with cue type and cue offset varied. With the side cues, the task-switch cost decreased in all cases at the longer cuing interval, but with the centered cues, it decreased only when the display size was small. Thus, the effects of cuing interval on switch costs are sensitive to variations of display characteristics, whereas cuing interval and display characteristics have little influence on the right-left prevalence effect, suggesting that prevalence effect is due to processes that are independent from those producing the switch cost.

Switch costs in task switching are often assumed to reflect the strengthening of task-related associations. Recently, we provided evidence that committing an error leads to the strengthening of the wrong task (Steinhauser & Hubner, 2006). In the present study, we report how error-induced control compensates for the effects of error strengthening. We hypothesized that, although error detection cannot prevent an error from being strengthened, it initiates processes that suppress the negative consequences of error strengthening on subsequent trials. Because error-induced control is known to operate slowly, we predicted that a compensatory effect should be observable only for slow responses. In three task-switching experiments, these predictions were confirmed by distributional analyses. The results extend our understanding of the interplay between procedural learning and executive control.