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This paper argues that transition is not a one-off event that occurs when students first enter universities but is an on-going process that is repeated over time. We draw on qualitative data from a longitudinal project on 'non-traditional' students who entered a research-intensive university in Scotland direct from further education colleges. This cohort of 45 was asked about their views on college and university learning in a study that was conducted throughout their time at university; a sub-sample of 15 was then followed up 10 years later. Our data suggest that four significant transitions, or set of critical moments, can be identified: the loss of a sense of belonging on coming to university, learning to fit in by the end of the first year, changing approaches to learning and belonging in the final years of study and changing selves in the years following graduation. At each point, positive relationships with peers and staff made a significant difference to how these transitions were managed. Moreover, the changes experienced continued to have an impact on the personal and professional lives of the cohort., Author(s): Lyn Tett [sup.1] , Viviene E Cree [sup.2] , Hazel Christie [sup.3] Author Affiliations: (1) 0000 0001 0719 6059grid.15751.37School of Education and Professional Development, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate, HD1 [...]

We surveyed rural elementary schools in New Zealand regarding their practice of parent involvement (PI). Interviews were conducted at 22 schools using a schedule which focused on eleven aspects of PI: policy formation, acting as a resource, collaborating with teachers, sharing information on children, channels of communication, liaison with school staff, parent education, parent support, encouraging parents into school, involving diverse parents, and professional development for teachers. Analysis of data from the interviews identified several common weaknesses in PI provision: a lack of written school policies on PI; the ad hoc nature of the organization of PI; minimal parent education organized by schools; minimal focus on parent support; minimal use of home visits; limited ideas to involve diverse parents; a minimal focus on involving parents of children with special needs; and, limited professional development for teachers on working with parents. Implications for improving the practice of PI in rural elementary schools are discussed. Keywords Parent involvement * Elementary schools * Parents * Teachers DOI 10.1007/s10826-010-9368-5

Byline: Scott W. Plunkett (1), Andrew O. Behnke (2), Tovah Sands (3), Brian Y. Choi (4) Keywords: Adolescent academic achievement; Immigrant families; Parent; Monitoring; Schoolwork help; Educational advice Abstract: The purpose of this study was to add to the understanding of the effects of perceived parental engagement on adolescents' academic achievement in immigrant families. Self-report data were collected from 1,245 adolescents in immigrant families from four high schools in Los Angeles County. The sample characteristics follow: 13--16 years old (M = 14.5) 58.9% female, 41.1% male 57.5% Latino 40.6% 1st generation youth (i.e., foreign born), 59.4% 2nd generation youth. After controlling for parental educational attainment, parental engagement variables were indirectly related to grades through youths' academic engagement. Multigroup SEM indicated some differences between genders, generational statuses, and ethnicities (Latinos versus others). Adolescents' perceptions of monitoring by mothers and fathers were indirectly related to grades through academic engagement. Perceived educational advice by mothers was indirectly related to grades through academic engagement for non-Latinos, boys, and 2nd generation youth. Perceived mothers' schoolwork help was positively related to adolescents' academic engagement in all the models (except 2nd generation youth), yet fathers' schoolwork help was significant only for girls and 2nd generation youth. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Psychology, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA, 91330-8255, USA (2) Department of 4-H, Youth Development, and Family & Consumer Sciences, North Carolina State University, NCSU Campus Box 7605, Raleigh, NC, 27695-7605, USA (3) Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA, 91330-8265, USA (4) Graduate School of Education, Interdisciplinary Studies in Human Development at the University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6216, USA Article History: Registration Date: 31/07/2008 Received Date: 16/05/2008 Accepted Date: 31/07/2008 Online Date: 20/08/2008

The purpose of this study is to defend the view that education should be evaluated in terms of the capability to achieve valued functionings, rather than mental satisfaction or resources. In keeping with Amartya Sen's capabilities approach we argue that mental satisfaction provides an inaccurate metric of well-being because of the phenomenon of adaptive preferences. Equally, resources cannot be used as a metric of well-being because of inequalities in the ability to convert income and commodities into valued functionings. Hence, interpreting education as a means to create human capital is also impoverished because it evaluates education solely in terms of the accumulation of resources. In order to provide evidence in support of the human capabilities approach we statistically examine the channels through which educational attainment affects the health functionings implied by life expectancy. Using panel data analysis for 35 developing countries for the years 1990, 1995 and 2000 we compare the health functionings (as indicated by life expectancy) that are achieved by the income growth generated by educational attainment, with the total health functionings that are achieved by educational attainment. We find that educational attainment (as indicated by average years of schooling) has a significant effect on life expectancy independently of its effect by way of income growth. A 1% increase in per capita income increases life expectancy by 0.073954%, while a 1% increase in average years of schooling directly increases life expectancy by 0.055324%. Because it shows that income underestimates the health functionings achieved by educational attainment, our empirical findings lend support to the claim that the value of education should be measured in terms of the capability for functioning, rather than resources. KEY WORDS: capabilities approach, development, educational attainment, functionings, human capital, life expectancy, well-being

Basic and applied research related to the effects of interspersing trials of maintenance (i.e., review) tasks among trials of acquisition tasks on academic skill development is reviewed. In general, empirical [...]

Basic fact acquisition is an important component for developing higher-order math skills. However, getting students with a history of academic noncompliance to engage in activities related to skills acquisition can [...]

Research on the additive interspersal procedure was extended by exposing seventh-grade students to curricula-based (e.g., educationally valid) language arts assignments. In Experiment I, each student was given a control language [...]

Explicit timing and interspersal interventions were investigated using a within-subjects design with 45 third-grade students. A control assignment consisted of subtraction of a two digit number from a two digit [...]

Byline: Mark T. Harvey (1), Michael E. May (1), Craig H. Kennedy (1) Keywords: single case design; N = 1 design; multiple baseline; educational evaluation; educational systems; nonconcurrent multiple baseline Abstract: Important findings are often a balance between the rigor of the experimental design and innovativeness of the experimental question. One broad topic area that has received a great deal of discussion, but little empirical study, is the evaluation of educational systems. Experimental designs that permit the analysis of practices used by state education agencies, local education agencies, and schools have the potential for yielding socially significant findings that could improve education. In this article we discuss the use of nonconcurrent multiple baseline designs as an option for studying the activities and effects of educational programs. Nonconcurrent multiple baseline designs stagger the timing of baseline-to-intervention changes across various entities, but the baselines and intervention phases are not contemporaneous across each of the tiers. Although considered less rigorous than concurrent multiple baseline designs, nonconcurrent designs have a degree of flexibility that may allow for their use in studying complex social contexts, such as educational settings, that might otherwise go unanalyzed. Author Affiliation: (1) Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN Article History: Registration Date: 27/10/2004

Byline: Karen Dooley (1) Abstract: As university teachers we find ourselves grappling with the increasingly diverse legacies of students' prior pedagogic experiences -- some of which seem to work against the quality intellectual outcomes now demanded from higher education. In this context, this paper reports a descriptive study of pedagogy created for Chinese students in a mainstream Australian secondary school with a high level of tertiary entry. An influential literature on student learning in higher education has pointed to the constraining effects of both Western and Chinese secondary schooling on university students' learning. In the case of Chinese students who enter Western universities from Western secondary schools, the picture is complicated by research indicating that students of English as a Second Language (ESL) receive even more constraining forms of pedagogy than their native-English-speaking peers. A framework of Bernsteinian sociological concepts and discourse analytic concepts was employed in the study reported here to explore this possibility. Implications are drawn for managing the transition of ESL students to university contexts, and for reflecting on our own responses to linguistic and cultural diversity in the tutorial room. Author Affiliation: (1) School of Cultural and Language Studies in Education, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Rd, Kelvin Grove Qld, 4059, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 01/10/2004

Byline: Carlo Salerno (1) Keywords: comparative studies; funding mechanisms; private higher education; resource use; revenue sources Abstract: A rich body of literature has emerged that seeks to shed further light on how concepts like globalization and internationalization shape higher education systems and their institutions. This paper examines how the rise of private higher education in various national contexts has engendered global patterns of public financial support for private institutions and particularly the various ways in which public funding is channeled to such providers. A cross-national typology of public/private higher education sectors and a system-level 'map' of how public funding is directed to institutions are both used to explain why different patterns may emerge. This framework is then used to examine the policies and practices in four representative systems: England, Germany, New Zealand, and the state of Pennsylvania in the United States. The available evidence suggests that in systems with weak or newly emerging private sectors, unclear regulations and concerns about quality implies that public funding tends to be channeled into private institutions indirectly (e.g. through tax-abatements and student financial aid). In systems where private institutions play a more substantial role, public funding is channeled to privates using a mix of indirect and direct mechanisms. Author Affiliation: (1) Center for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS), Universiteit Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands Article History: Registration Date: 01/10/2004

Byline: Ruth Kane (1), Susan Sandretto (2), Chris Heath (3) Keywords: academic staff development; reflective practice; research/teaching nexus; teacher attributes; teacher characteristics; university teaching Abstract: This study is an attempt to understand betterthe complex nature of tertiary teaching byidentifying and investigating the attributes ofa group of excellent teachers in sciencedepartments of the University. In working withthis group of teachers we examined what theysay about their teaching and what theydo in their teaching practice. Ourfindings, as well as confirming much of theexisting literature at primary, secondary andtertiary levels, emphasise the strong linkbetween the teaching practice and researchcommitment of our excellent science teachers as well as the key roles played byinterpersonal relationships and the `person' ofthe teacher. We propose that purposefulreflective practice integrates the manydimensions of teaching for this group ofexcellent science teachers. We present atheoretical model that can be used to assistnovice or less experienced university academicsin their development and understanding ofteaching excellence at the tertiary level. Author Affiliation: (1) College of Education, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, New Zealand (author for correspondence, e-mail (2) Faculty of Education, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand (3) Higher Education Development Centre, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand Article History: Registration Date: 01/10/2004

Byline: Amirali Minbashian (1), Gail F. Huon (1), Kevin D. Bird (1) Keywords: approaches to studying; assessment questions; exam performance; quality and quantity of learning Abstract: Previous research has generallyfailed to find a relation between the waystudents approach the task of studying andtheir exam grades. The present studyinvestigated why it is that a deep approach tostudying, which has been shown to result in ahigher quality of learning, does notconsistently result in higher exam grades. Theparticipants in the study were 49 third-yearpsychology students. They completedquestionnaires that assessed approaches tostudying, motivation, and intelligence. Theirfinal exam marks, along with indicators of thequality of their final exam responses and thequantity of information reproduced in the finalexam were used as indicators of academicperformance. The results showed that the deepstudy approach was linearly related to thequality of exam responses, but quadraticallyrelated to the quantity of informationreproduced. The use of the deep approach was nomore effective in facilitating high exam marksfor questions that emphasised understanding ofthe study material than for questions thatemphasised reproduction of it. Taken together,these findings suggest that students who usehigh levels of the deep approach fail toconsistently achieve higher exam grades becauseof deficiencies in the quantity of theirresponses, rather than because of theinsensitivity of exams to students'understanding of the study material. Author Affiliation: (1) School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 01/10/2004

Byline: David L. Lee (1), Andrea K. Laspe (2) Keywords: behavioral momentum; high-p request sequences; journal writing; resistance to change; written expression Abstract: Written expression is a key aspect of academic success. Programs to enhance writing skills often rely on a feedback loop that consists of student production (i.e., get something on paper) and teacher feedback. Unfortunately, some students fail to produce enough written product so that the teacher can give constructive feedback. The purpose of this study was to examine two methods to increase the written word production of four students with difficulties in written expression. In the verbal prompt condition, students were given verbal prompts by their teacher to resume writing in their journals after the student stopped writing for approximately one min. In the high-p request condition, the teacher asked students to write a series of three words that typically occasioned compliance prior to asking the student to resume journal writing. Both interventions were assessed within the context of verbal praise and no verbal praise. Results suggested that both interventions increased the number of words written, particularly in the verbal praise condition. However, the high-p request sequence was more efficient and produced writing behavior that was more persistent across sessions. Results are discussed within the context of the theory of behavioral momentum. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Educational and School Psychology and Special Education, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania (2) Evesham Township Schools, Marlton, New Jersey Article History: Registration Date: 05/10/2004

Byline: Tim Riesen (1), John McDonnell (1), Jesse W. Johnson (2), Shamby Polychronis (1), Matt Jameson (1) Keywords: simultaneous prompting; constant time delay; embedded instruction; inclusion; students with moderate and severe disabilities Abstract: An adapted alternating treatment design was used to measure the effectiveness of constant time delay and simultaneous prompting procedures within an embedded instruction format on the acquisition of academic skills. Four middle school students with moderate to severe disabilities and the paraprofessionals who supported these students in their general education classes participated in the study. The results of the study indicated that both procedures were effective in promoting the acquisition of the target skills. However, the constant time delay procedure was more effective for two of the students and the simultaneous prompting procedure was more effective for the remaining students. Results are discussed in terms of future research and implications for supporting the inclusion of students with moderate and severe disabilities in general education classes. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Special Education, College of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (2) Department of Human Development and Learning, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee Article History: Registration Date: 05/10/2004

Byline: Ingo Liefner (1) Keywords: funding sources of higher education institutions; national higher education systems; performance of universities; resource allocation in higher education; research universities Abstract: This article analyzes forms of resourceallocation in university systems and theireffects on performance in institutions ofhigher education. Internationally, highereducation systems differ substantially withregard to research and education fundingsources and to ways that resources areallocated. European universities receive themajority of their funding from public sources,but private funding plays a more important rolein Anglo-American systems of higher education.Many governments use competitive elements inthe process of allocating public funds toinstitutions of higher education. Examplesinclude the implementation of performancemeasures through 'formula funding', or resourceallocation on the basis of evaluated projectproposals. Corresponding forms ofperformance-based resource allocation can befound within most higher educationinstitutions. This article analyzes how variousforms of funding and resource allocation affectuniversities at the macro-level and individualbehavior at the micro-level. A theoreticalapproach to this problem suggests thatperformance-based funding tends to bring aboutpositive changes but is also a factor inunintended side effects. Forms of resourceallocation influence the behavior of academicsand managers in higher education, particularlytheir levels of activity as well as the kindsof activities they engage in and their ways ofdealing with risks. Empirical analyses partlyconfirm these hypotheses. It can be shown thatchanges in resource allocation have an impacton the level and type of activity academicsconcentrate on but not on the long-term successof universities. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Economic Geography, University of Hannover, Schneiderberg 50, 30167, Hannover, Germany Article History: Registration Date: 11/10/2004

Byline: Snejana Slantcheva (1) Keywords: Bulgaria; higher education/universities; faculty/academic profession; teaching and learning; transition Abstract: In this essay I analyze the current status of the academicprofession in Bulgaria at a time of difficult socio-economictransition. After providing a brief overview of the historicaldevelopment of Bulgarian academia, I discuss faculty workingconditions, the career path within the profession and the legalframework for the professoriate. Numerous problems with respectto finances, institutional infrastructure and legal environmentchallenge the status quo of the Bulgarian faculty. The essaycloses by highlighting the future key issues for theacademic profession that focus around its finanacial viability,difficulties in recruiting a new generation of scholars, the qualityof teaching and learning, and faculty entrepreneurship. Author Affiliation: (1) 7 Doiran Str., 2700, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria Article History: Registration Date: 11/10/2004

Byline: Peter Karmel (1) Abstract: The Commonwealth Governmentshould move to the funding of undergraduate coursesfor Australian students through the studentsrather than by way of direct grants toinstitutions. An independent coordinating bodyshould be re-established to report on thehigher education sector, advise theCommonwealth and administer Commonwealth highereducation programs. Public funding ofundergraduate education and research trainingshould be decentralised through a system ofscholarships. Undergraduate scholarship holdersshould pay charges determined by universitiesunder HECS (Higher Education ContributionScheme) arrangements. HECS arrangements alsoshould apply to full fee paying undergraduatesand PELS (Postgraduate Education Loan Scheme)arrangements to full fee paying researchstudents. Institutional research fundingshould be on a disciplinary basis, takingaccount of the volume and quality ofoutputs. Author Affiliation: (1) Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2600, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 11/10/2004

Byline: Eric J. Billington (1), Christopher H. Skinner (2) Keywords: matching law; effort; conditioned reinforcement; choice Abstract: College students were exposed to two sets of mathematics assignments. For each set students were given an experimental and a control assignment. The control assignments contained 15 three-digit by two-digit target problems. The experimental assignments contained 18 similar target problems as well as six one-digit by one-digit multiplication problems interspersed after every third target problem. In the first assignment set, students were asked to work each assignment for 5 minutes. Although the experimental assignments contained more target problems, results showed that significantly more students chose the experimental assignment and rated it as less difficult and as requiring less effort to complete. In the second assignment set, students were asked to complete both assignments. Again significantly more students rated the experimental assignment as being less difficult and as requiring less effort to complete. Although more students chose the experimental assignment for homework, this difference was not significant. Discussion focuses on using the interspersal procedure to enhance students' perceptions of assignments and alter their choice behavior. Author Affiliation: (1) Experimental Psychology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN (2) Department of Educational Psychology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN Article History: Registration Date: 21/10/2004

Byline: Rosaria S. Justi (1), John K. Gilbert (2) Abstract: If chemistry is to be taught successfully,teachers must have a good subject matterknowledge (SK) of the ideas with which theyare dealing, the nature of this falling withinthe orbit of philosophy of chemistry. They mustalso have a good pedagogic contentknowledge (PCK), the ability to communicate SKto students, the nature of this falling withinthe philosophy and psychology of chemicaleducation. Taking the case of models andmodelling, important themes in the philosophyof chemistry, an interview-based study wasconducted into the SK and PCK of a sample ofteachers in Brazil. This paper focuses on theresults of the university chemistry teachersub-sample in that enquiry, analyses their SKand PCK, and speculates on the implications ofthis for the education of schoolteachers.Finally, it suggests approaches to theprofessional development of universitychemistry teachers that place an emphasis onthe philosophy of chemistry. Author Affiliation: (1) Departamento de Quimica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil (2) School of Education, The University of Reading, U.K. Article History: Registration Date: 12/10/2004

Byline: Terrence C. Mason (1), Robert F. Arnove (2), Margaret Sutton (2) Keywords: academic credits; comparative education; curriculum; educational policy; higher education; international education Abstract: Through an examination of the higher education systems in threecountries (Indonesia, Nicaragua, and Vietnam), the authors explore howthe use of academic credits for monitoring student progress has been andcontinues to be linked to policies and institutions associated withcapitalist, market-driven economic systems. The recent histories ofthese countries and their current social and political contexts areanalyzed in relation to three interrelated themes that have emerged fromthe analysis of the three cases. These themes are: (1) Linkages topolitical and economic systems: higher education as vocationaltraining, (2) Standardization, efficiency, andtechnocracy, and (3) Who controls the curriculum? Inconclusion, the authors suggest that the academic credit system,embedded within a network of other educational practices, hastransformed the university into an institution focused on relativelynarrow, utilitarian aims rather than a more universal pursuit ofknowledge. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Curriculum and Instruction, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington (2) Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington Article History: Registration Date: 10/10/2004

Byline: Graham Gibbs (1), Trevor Habeshaw (2), Mantz Yorke (3) Abstract: In 1998 the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE)commissioned a survey of the extent to which institutional learning andteaching strategies were being used in English higher education. Thesurvey was seen by HEFCE as a necessary precursor to the enactment ofits policy decision to allocate a component of institutional funding onthe basis of the possession of (and subsequent activation of) aninstitutional learning and teaching strategy. Responses from 116institutions showed considerable variation in the extent to which theyhad developed a strategic approach to learning and teaching. Over the coming years there is likely to be a marked increase in thelevel and sophistication of strategic planning to develop learning andteaching across whole institutions. The article concludes by drawingupon the organisational development literature to suggest some ways inwhich this shift might be facilitated. Author Affiliation: (1) Centre for Higher Education Practice, Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK (2) Technical and Educational Services Ltd., 37 Ravenswood Road, Redland, Bristol, BS6 6BW, UK (3) Centre for Higher Education Development, Liverpool John Moores University, IM Marsh Campus, Barkhill Road, Liverpool, L17 6BD, UK Article History: Registration Date: 09/10/2004

Byline: David Kember (1), Anthony Wong (1) Abstract: Many standard teaching evaluation questionnaires havebeen criticised as being based upon didactic models ofteaching, and there are also concerns about extraneousfactors biasing responses. These issues are examinedin the light of a study of students' perceptions ofgood and poor teaching from interviews with 55 HongKong undergraduate university students. The interviewtranscripts suggested that perceptions of teachingquality form as an interplay between the student'sconceptions of learning and the beliefs about teachingof the lecturer. The students' beliefs about learningcan be placed on a continuum between passive andactive learning. Their perception of the instructors'beliefs about teaching range between transmissive andnon-traditional teaching. The quality of teaching isthen conceived in four categories which are thequadrants formed by the intersections of therepresentations of beliefs about learning andperceptions of teaching. The quadrants are examined inturn to reveal how students with active and passivebeliefs about learning conceive quality intransmissive and non-traditional teaching. The resultssuggest that responses to questionnaires would bebiased by the students' conceptions of learning. Theyalso confirm the significance of implicit models ofteaching in questionnaire design. Author Affiliation: (1) Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong (2) Educational Development Unit, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong Article History: Registration Date: 09/10/2004

Byline: Nira Hativa (1), Menucha Birenbaum (2) Abstract: This study develops a tool for identifying students' preferred teaching approaches, with high internal consistency for the scales involved. We examined these preferences in relation to students' approaches to learning and to two academic disciplines with contrasting academic environments. The sample consisted of 175 engineering and education undergraduates at a major university in Israel. Responses to our questionnaire revealed students' preferences for four approaches that correspond to the four main instructional approaches that had been identified in research based on teachers' sources. Students' most favored teaching approach is the lecturer who is organized, clear, and interesting, and the second, with a large gap from the first, is the instructor who provides for students' needs in learning. The two approaches least favored are information-transmission and promotion of self-regulation. Students with different approaches to learning preferred teaching approaches that best served their learning approaches. There were few discipline-related differences in students' preferences, in spite of the very different learning environments. However, all participants preferred teaching approaches that they perceived as beneficial for learning but that they had not often experienced, if at all. Author Affiliation: (1) School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 69978, Israel (2) School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Israel Article History: Registration Date: 16/10/2004

Byline: Robert H. Fenske (1), John D. Porter (2), Caryl P. DuBrock (2) Abstract: This longitudinal research study focused on persistence and financial aid of women, underrepresented minorities, and needy students majoring in science, engineering, and mathematics (SEM) in a large, public university in a metropolitan area. Beginning in fall 1989, four consecutive freshmen cohorts (n's = 1967, 1679, 1614, and 1924, respectively) were tracked through 1996--97. SEM majors persisted and graduated at higher rates, but took longer to graduate than non-SEM majors. Women, underrepresented minorities, and needy students received more gift aid than other student populations. However, only women had lower departure rates and graduated at higher rates than other SEM student populations. Compared to non-SEM majors, gift aid for SEM majors was more likely to be awarded on the basis of merit rather than need. Average loan indebtedness increased rapidly from 1989--90 through 1996--97 for both SEM and non-SEM majors. Implications of the findings for improved institutional and federal policy are indicated, and further research on the study topics recommended. Author Affiliation: (1) Arizona State University, P.O. Box 872411, Tempe, Arizona, 85287-2411 (2) Arizona State University, USA Article History: Registration Date: 16/10/2004

Byline: Rosa Milagros Santos (1), Benjamin Lignugaris/Kraft (2) Keywords: behavior momentum; instructional momentum; early childhood; indirect requests; direct questions; attempts to respond; language delays Abstract: Indirect instructional approaches, such as responsive interaction, are common in inclusive early childhood settings. Unfortunately, young children with disabilities do not always have the skills to take advantage of these learning opportunities. Teaching children with disabilities to be more responsive to developmentally appropriate indirect instructional strategies may help them take advantage of and benefit from available learning opportunities in inclusive settings. The purpose of this research was to examine the extent to which presenting a series of direct questions increased children's attempts to respond and correct responses to indirect requests. Increased attempts to respond and correct responses to indirect requests were evident for all participants with whom the intervention was implemented. Three of the participants continued to attempt to respond and responded correctly to indirect requests when intervention procedures were removed. The contributions of these findings to literature on language instruction with young children, implications of the findings for practitioners, methodological limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Special Education, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820 (2) Special Education at, Utah State University, Logan, UT Article History: Registration Date: 29/09/2004

Byline: Belva C. Collins (1), Meada Hall (2), Terri A. Branson (3), Michael Holder (3) Keywords: inclusion; related and nonrelated information Abstract: Two secondary students with moderate disabilities (one per classroom) attended Advanced English classes with peers without disabilities in a rural high school. In additional to conducting planned daily instruction, each English teacher also systematically presented three sets of information (two facts per set) to each student with disabilities during the course of the class using a parallel treatments design. Each set of information included a fact related to the English class (e.g., 'Begin each sentence with a capital letter.') and a fact not related to the English class (e.g., 'The governor of Kentucky is Paul Patton.'). The special education teacher conducted daily probe sessions to document acquisition. Of the six facts presented to each student with disabilities, one student acquired two related facts and one unrelated fact, while the other student acquired two related and two unrelated facts. This investigation implies that students who are fully included can acquire information presented by the regular classroom teacher during the course of a typical class and that teachers can facilitate learning by planning to present such information in a systematic fashion. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Special Education and Rehabilitation Counseling, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky (2) East Jessamine High School, Jessamine County Schools, Nicholasville, Kentucky currently Project Director, Training Rural Educators in Kentucky through Collaborative Relationships, Department of Special Education and Rehabilitation Counseling, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky (3) East Jessamine High School, Jessamine County Schools, Nicholasville, Kentucky Article History: Registration Date: 29/09/2004

Byline: Phillip Ward (1), Melissa Johnson (2), Ferman Konukman (2) Keywords: teacher education; directed rehearsal; physical education; teaching behaviors Abstract: This investigation evaluated the use of directed rehearsal to improve the teaching behaviors of four preservice elementary physical education teachers during a teaching practicum. Directed rehearsal consisted of two phases: (a) initial feedback following baseline, review of teaching behaviors, and rehearsal and (b) rehearsal contingent upon errors made during each lesson. Three teaching behaviors were assessed using a multiple baseline design across behaviors for each teacher. Social validity in the form of the acceptability of directed rehearsal as a teacher training intervention also was assessed using a questionnaire. Results indicate that directed rehearsal was effective in improving the teaching behaviors of the four teachers in this study to 100% correct implementation. In addition, the intervention was acceptable to the teachers and the class instructor. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska (2) Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska Article History: Registration Date: 28/09/2004

Byline: Muhammad K. Mayanja (1) Abstract: The social background of Makerere students was analysed in order to gain some insight in the distribution of scarce higher education opportunities in Uganda and assess the ability of the students to finance part of their education cost in the process of massifying higher education without diluting the quality of instruction. The findings were that students from well to-do learned families in the more prosperous districts were enjoying the existing performance based subsidies (PBS) and the privately sponsored places and programs (PSPP) which Makerere University had introduced. The interaction of the social and school system acted to reinforce the inequalities at all stages starting from family background, the primary and secondary schools as well as the universities under the present PBS system of admission. The study recommends that while government must remain with the primary responsibility to fund higher education, the public subsidy should become more sensitive to equity and if need be introduced to cost sharing with capacity for positive discrimination. In order to implement this, the existing PBS should gradually be replaced by an equity based subsidy (EBS) starting with 50% of the funds. The funds for EBS should be allocated to the districts which should develop capacity for identification of the most needy students to get the EBS awards. Students from low income families should compete for both PBS at national level and EBS at their district levels. A loan scheme is also recommended for students who may not be sponsored under PBS and EBS as well as for living expenses which should be assumed by the beneficiaries. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Planning and Development, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda Article History: Registration Date: 03/10/2004

Byline: Joel B. Babalola (1) Abstract: This study attempts to offer practical explanations on how to move recurrent resources from areas where there is overspending to where there is underfunding with respect to the costing parameters recommended for Nigerian Universities by the National Universities Commission (NUC). Supplementing available data from files and documents of universities as well as from the NUC with an interview with top officials from six of the ten sampled universities stratified according to age and geographical location, a regression model was used to relate the 1991/92 expenditures per student with eight explanatory variables namely: enrolment size, junior/teacher ratio, goods costs per student, type of curriculum offered, grant-effectiveness ratio, and spending deviation. Using a descriptive statistics, it has been revealed that there were overspending on general administration, general academic and retirement benefits at the expense of research and public service. Furthermore, the study shows that non-NUC grants, gifts and external aid require further tapping to supplement the NUC which supplied over 80 percent of the total revenue. The regression equations predict that by increasing the enrolment size as well as the junior staff ratio and by reducing non-academic/academic staff ratio the student/teacher ratio, the goods cost per student, the curriculum cost and the spending deviation, it will be possible to increase the average expenditure on research and public service hitherto neglected and simultaneously reduce unit administrative supports costs. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (Fax Article History: Registration Date: 03/10/2004

Byline: Kelly A. Heckaman (1), Sheila Alber (2), Sonya Hooper (3), William L. Heward (4) Keywords: autism; instructional strategies; difficult tasks; error responses; disruptive behavior Abstract: We compared the effects of two instructional strategies on the frequency of errors and episodes of disruptive behavior of 4 students with autism. In Phase I, easy and difficult tasks were presented to determine whether the tasks were associated with differential rates of disruptive behavior. Phase II compared the effects of a least-to-most prompting procedure (LTM) to a progressive time delay procedure (PTD) on errors and disruptive behavior when difficult tasks were presented. Observers sequentially recorded instructor instructions, response prompts, prompts for appropriate sitting, and feedback statements and student disruptive, correct, error, and no responses during 1:1 sessions. Results showed PTD produced fewer errors than LTM for all 4 students, and lower rates of disruptive behavior for 2 students. When PTD was implemented as the final phase with 2 of the students, rates of disruptive behavior associated with the task previously taught with LTM immediately decreased. Conditional probability statements indicated that disruptive behavior occurred infrequently with all 4 students when effective response prompts were used. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Special Education, Northwestern State University of Louisiana, Natchitoches, Louisiana (2) Department of Special Education, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi (3) Department of Educational Services and Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (4) Department of Physical Activity and Educational Services, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Article History: Registration Date: 28/09/2004

Byline: E.J. Chuta (1) Abstract: Education banking is a rarity in the whole world. However, there are organisations in the United Kingdom and the United States of America whose operations are akin to the Nigerian Education Bank in the areas of student lending. The role of the Nigerian Education Bank in the Nigerian educational system is three-fold: The Bank is to serve as a major intermediary in Nigeria's education credit market it is designed to harness private sector resources for the funding of education and its takeover of part of the educational funding responsibilities will enable the Nigerian Government to rechannel its scarce resources to other pressing areas of the economy. The main and specific functions of the Bank include, among others: student lending, lending for publishing, equipment leasing, project financing, funds mobilization and provision of advisory services for educational purposes. Some prescriptions are incorporated to fine-tune the operational modalities. The article highlights the comparative experience of several countries in Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas in the key area of student financing. It recommends the active participation of Nigeria's private sector in educational financing, and the strengthening of the student lending scheme through resources from petroleum, higher education tax and value-added tax. Author Affiliation: (1) Nigerian Education Bank, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria and University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria Article History: Registration Date: 03/10/2004

Byline: Dennis J. Rose (1), R. John Church (2) Keywords: teacher training; practice; maintenance; feedback Abstract: We reviewed 49 studies which used direct observation procedures to provide data on the effects of pre-service and inservice training in practical classroom teaching behaviors and skills. We found stronger effects for training packages which included classroom practice with performance feedback. The research provided conflicting evidence regarding the value of modeling, role-play, cueing systems, and contingency management components in practical skills training. The weakest training effects were those produced by microteaching, Minicourse, and protocol training packages. Twenty of the evaluations also provided follow-up data but the design of these studies did not permit any conclusions to be drawn regarding the training conditions which are necessary for the maintenance of newly acquired classroom teaching skills. We concluded that identification of the training conditions which are necessary for the maintenance of new teaching skills will require more thoughtful conceptualizations of maintenance and its measurement, and more carefully designed component analyses of those factors suggested by basic research as being necessary for maintenance. Author Affiliation: (1) National Institution of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (2) Department of Education, University of Canterbury, New Zealand Article History: Registration Date: 28/09/2004

Byline: Arild Tjeldvoll (1), Kristine Holtet (1) Abstract: This article aims at presenting the University of Oslo as a case of a Scandinavian university experiencing policy and structural changes as a consequence of changes in government's thinking on university finance. In this situation the active marketing of research based services might be a new source of revenue, and hence the following question comes up: How is the service function of the University perceived by the University and its clients in the Oslo region? The University of Oslo case is explored by reviewing available policy documents, statistics, regulations, charters and legal acts issued by the university itself and the Ministry of Education. In addition, information obtained through interviews with key actors at the university and key clients of the Oslo region, is presented. The study concludes that the University of Oslo is taking careful steps in the service direction. Author Affiliation: (1) University of Oslo, Institute for Educational Research, Helga Engs Building, P.O., N-0317, Oslo, Norway Article History: Registration Date: 03/10/2004

Byline: Phillip Ward (1), Shannon Smith (2), Kemal Makasci (2) Keywords: teacher education; directed rehearsal; physical education; teaching skills Abstract: Directed rehearsal was used to improve the teaching skills of six preservice elementary physical education teachers during a teaching practicum. The teaching skills lesson introduction, lesson closure, task presentation, and general and specific subject-matter feedback were assessed using a multiple baseline design across behaviors for each teacher. Social validity, in the form of the acceptability of directed rehearsal as a teacher training intervention, was also assessed using a questionnaire. Directed rehearsal was effective in improving the teaching skills of the teachers to either 100% correct implementation or, in the case of subject-matter feedback, to an established rate. In addition, the intervention was acceptable to the teachers and the practicum instructor. These results extend both the error correction and the research on teacher education literatures. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE (2) Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE Article History: Registration Date: 15/10/2004

Byline: R. John Casey (1), Patricia Gentile (2), Stephen W. Bigger (1) Abstract: The current literature on the evaluation of teaching in highereducation institutions is reviewed critically and evaluated from anAustralian perspective. The issues of what constitutes 'goodteaching' and how effective teaching can lead to quality in teachingare discussed together with the reasons for introducing appraisal systems.The 'professional development' and 'duties-based'models of teaching appraisal are summarized and assessed along with thevarious sources of information which can be used as inputs to the appraisalprocess. The problems associated with appraisal systems are identified andrecommendations are made as to the design of appraisal systems which arevalid, reliable and have high user acceptability. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Chemical Sciences, Victoria University of Technology, P.O. Box 14428, MCMC, Melbourne, 8001, Australia (2) Student Learning Unit, Victoria University of Technology, P.O. Box 14428, MCMC, Melbourne, 8001, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 17/09/2004

Byline: Prasantha Herath (1), Kamala Liyanage (2), Morikazu Ushiogi (3), Hiromitsu Muta (1) Abstract: This paper focuses on the complex nature of designing andeffectively implementing policies, assuring fair access to universityeducational opportunities in heterogeneous societies. First, the universityadmission problem is modeled as a load balancing, scheduling and resourceallocation problem in a heterogeneous distributed system with policies toallocate student loads in university resources. Then the paper analyses thedifferent policies implemented in Sri Lanka for the last three decades todistribute the limited university level training resources in theengineering and medical faculties equally among the citizens. It is observed that in Sri Lanka, the schools in thirteen out of twentytwo districts did not produce a single engineering or medicine student until1974. Two districts enjoyed several times their fair share. Other districtshad less than their fair share in access to free higher education resources.It is also observed that no standardisation methods have been used in bothadding and comparing the marks received in multiple-language examinationsfor different subjects. The policy changes helped the talented low-income students who live indisadvantaged areas to set access, to begin, complete and get ahead on theirown. Furthermore, it generated a new wave of regional economic development.The same policies badly affected the happy few who enjoyed more than theirfair share of the university resources. Dube claimed the policy wasdiscriminatory and contributed to the on-going civil war (1995) . Author Affiliation: (1) Graduate School of Decision Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan (2) University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka (3) Graduate School of International Development, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan Article History: Registration Date: 17/09/2004

Byline: Kathleen M. Zanolli (1), Pamela Paden (2), Koren Cox (3) Keywords: aggression; social skills; affectionate behavior; turn-taking; toddlers Abstract: Toddlers in day care have more toy conflicts, aggression, and peer-inflicted injuries than any other age group. Toddlers are also capable of turn-taking and affectionate behavior, but exhibit these prosocial behaviors less often than aggression and toy-taking. We explored the usefulness and feasibility of contextual and teacher-directed social skills intervention for increasing toddlers' turn-taking and affectionate behavior to peers. Results showed that adding tangible consequences to a basic package of contextual arrangement, prompts, and praise was the most effective strategy for increasing both turn-taking and affection. Aggression decreased when affection or turn-taking increased. Author Affiliation: (1) Human Development and Family Life, University of Kansas, 4001 Dole, Lawrence, KS, 66045 (2) USDA Preschool Program, Topeka, KS (3) Hilltop Child Development Center, Lawrence, KS Article History: Registration Date: 10/09/2004

Byline: Mary Ann Ferkis (1), Phillip J. Belfiore (2), Christopher H. Skinner (3) Keywords: drill and practice; effective instruction; learning efficiency; reading methods; sight words Abstract: Single response learning trials, defined in terms of the three-term contingency model, were compared with repeated response learning trials. The purpose of Study 1 was to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of single and repeated response learning trials on sight word remediation. In Study 1, one single response learning trial having one response opportunity per word was compared to one repeated response learning trial having five response opportunities. In Study 2, three single response trials were compared to three repeated response trials. In both studies, the training conditions were compared using an alternating treatments design. Measuring the cumulative number of sight words mastered showed the training conditions equally effective. However, measuring (a) the mean duration of training sessions, (b) the cumulative frequency of words mastered per session duration, (c) the mean number of training sessions per word required for mastery, and (d) the training time per mastered word showed that the single response condition was more efficient. Discussion focuses on the need to include training data when determining best practices for teaching. Author Affiliation: (1) Center for Instructional Services, Purdue University, 1092 Stewart Center, West Lafayette, IN (2) Education Division, Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA (3) College of Education, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS Article History: Registration Date: 10/09/2004

Byline: Stephen J. Duggan (1) Abstract: During the 1960s, when Cambodia dedicated 20% of its annualbudget to education, a higher education system was put in place for thefirst time in Cambodia's 2000 year history. High quality universities werebuilt in Phnom Penh and in a number of Cambodia's wealthier provinces. Inthe early 1970s, Cambodia entered a long period of civil war. Alluniversities except the University of Phnom Penh were levelled during thesewars and as a result of the Khmer Rouge Regime, the entire education systemwas dismantled. The Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia in 1979 saw animmediate restoration of the education system except higher education. Ithas only been over the last few years that the higher education system hasreceived meaningful support. Although the higher education system requiressignificant local and international financial assistance, the system remainsheavily under funded and unresponsive to alterations in the labour market.This article examines provisions for higher education and discusses theissues, gaps and constraints facing the system in the lead up to the year2000. It notes that despite heavy student and social demand for highereducation, international financiers have not been enthusiastic aboutrestoring the system. This omission is not consistent with developments inhigher education throughout the region. Author Affiliation: (1) Faculty of Human Development, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, MCMC, Melbourne, 8001, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 17/09/2004

Byline: Kenneth H. Brown (1), Michael T. Heaney (2) Abstract: Universities and other institutions of higher education are frequently asked to justify, in economic terms, the allocation of state monies toward their programs. These institutions have often responded by conducting economic impact studies. The traditional approach to economic impact views increases in expenditures by a university as a means to create new jobs within the state and to expand the state's economic base. Recent studies have employed a new approach that also accounts for increases in the state's skill base as part of the economic impact. Although the skill-base approach yields favorable results for higher education, recent applications of the technique fail to consider fully the effects of migration on a university's economic impact and, thus, substantially overestimate the impact. Researchers are well advised to avoid the skill-base approach and to utilize the traditional economic-base approach, which produces more reliable estimates of local economic impact. Moreover, states and universities are cautioned not to place the debate over education financing exclusively in the realm of economic impact, since there are other reasons to provide publicly funded higher education. Author Affiliation: (1) The University of Northern Iowa, USA (2) Department of Political Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405-6001 Article History: Registration Date: 22/10/2004

Byline: David H. Wilder (1), Hugh F. McKeegan (2), Robert M. Midkiff (3), Richard C. Skelton (3), Robert E. Dunkerly (4) Abstract: Change in 4,119 students' freshman to senior ratings of four educational philosophies (vocational, academic, collegiate, and nonconformist) provided four measures of educational impact. Repeated measures analyses of variance compared changes in philosophy as a function of Greek affiliation, controlling for sex, historical era, major, parents' education, scholastic aptitude, and academic motivation. Small but significantly different degrees of change in the collegiate and nonconformist philosophies suggested that Greek affiliation increased social interests and inhibited some forms of intellectual interests. These small differences across all students masked the moderating effect of major. In the nonconformist philosophy, for example, the Greek x major interaction reflected substantial Greek--independent differences among humanities majors, and progressively smaller differences or reversals among social science, physical science, and engineering majors. Possible interpretations of this interaction are offered. Author Affiliation: (1) Psychological Services (Emeritus), USA (2) Department of Education (Emeritus), USA (3) Department of Education, USA (4) Bucknell University, USA Article History: Registration Date: 22/10/2004

Byline: Kate Murray (1), Ranald Macdonald (2) Abstract: This article reports a survey of current teaching practice and lecturers' perceptions of their role within a Business School. These findings have been placed in a theoretical framework. Analysis of the qualitative aspects of the survey showed some interesting variations in conceptions of the role of a lecturer, the purpose of lectures, tutorials and assessment. The results also showed inconsistencies which are explored. The main conceptions of teaching held by respondents describe the role of the lecturer as either imparting knowledge providing student support enthusing and motivating students facilitating student learning or some combination of these conceptions. A substantial majority of respondents saw themselves as either facilitators or student supporters. However, the predominant use of lectures and tutorials, with the purpose of disseminating information and applying or checking knowledge and understanding, conflicts with the majority view of the role of the lecturer. This disjunction between stated aims and claimed educational practice has been described as one of the 'mysteries of higher education'. Lecturers express attitudes and beliefs about teaching which are not translated into their teaching strategies and methods. Possible explanations for this disjunction are explored. Author Affiliation: (1) School of Business, University of Derby, USA (2) Curriculum Development, Learning and Teaching Institute, Sheffield Hallam University, UK Article History: Registration Date: 17/09/2004

Byline: Kate Beattie (1), Richard James (2) Abstract: The educational implications of non-traditional delivery methods atpostgraduate level are not yet well understood. A major question is whetheradvantages of access and flexibility are accompanied by trade-offs inlearning experiences and outcomes. In this paper we address the effectivenessof delivery methods currently used in postgraduate coursework programs inAustralia. We draw heavily on a national study of flexible delivery methodsin postgraduate education, conducted in 1995. Following a nation-wide survey, we investigated the effects of deliverytechnologies on learning and teaching in seven postgraduate courses.Information was collected, mostly by taped interview, from staff andstudents, and also from course documentation. We present here a typology,based on teaching and learning characteristics, by which we found it usefulto group delivery methods. We identify and discuss four major issuesconcerning the effects of these delivery methods on learning and on teaching,under the headi ngs learner control of learning, interaction and socialexchange, teachers as supporters of student learning and feedback inteaching. As well, we report, according to the typology, the effects ofspecific technologies on teaching and learning. We conclude that on the score of encouraging intellectual independencemany non-traditional delivery methods are fairly robust -- on managingcomplexity or uncertainty and encouraging a lively critical inquiry, theyfare less well. From what we have seen, the most effective strategies atpostgraduate level use integrated delivery approaches to create flexiblelearning environments with premiums on individual time management andpractical application of learning. Considerably more detailed evaluation ofthe resulting learning outcomes is needed. Author Affiliation: (1) Teaching and Learning Unit, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia (2) Centre for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 17/09/2004

Byline: Alenoush Saroyan (1), Linda S. Snell (2) Abstract: Many factors contribute to the way a lecture is conceptualized and delivered. These include one's philosophy and beliefs about teaching, knowledge of pedagogical principles, availability of resources, and the realities surrounding the instructional situation. In this paper three types of lecturing styles are described and their differences are highlighted in the context of current conceptions of teaching and pedagogical principles. The three lectures are subsequently characterized as content-driven, context-driven, and pedagogy-driven. Evaluation data suggest that the more pedagogically oriented the lecture, the higher it is rated by students. Author Affiliation: (1) Centre for University Teaching and Learning, McGill University, 3700 McTavish Street, MontreA'al, QueA'beA'c, Canada, H3A 1Y2 (2) Division of General Internal Medicine, Room A-421, Royal Victoria Hospital, 687 Pine Avenue West, MontreA'al, QueA'beA'c, Canada, H3A 1A1 Article History: Registration Date: 17/09/2004