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Background: An animal model of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is essential for further understanding the pathophysiological link between repetitive head injury and the development of chronic neurodegenerative disease. We previously described a model of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in mice that encapsulates the neurobehavioral spectrum characteristic of patients with CTE. We aimed to study the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this animal model., Methods: Our previously described model allows for controlled, closed head impacts to unanesthetized mice. Briefly, 12-week-old mice were divided into three groups: Control, single, and repetitive mTBI. Repetitive mTBI mice received six concussive impacts daily, for 7 days. Mice were then subsequently sacrificed for macro- and micro-histopathologic analysis at 7 days, 1 month, and 6 months after the last TBI received. Brain sections were immunostained for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) for astrocytes, CD68 for activated microglia, and AT8 for phosphorylated tau protein., Results: Brains from single and repetitive mTBI mice lacked macroscopic tissue damage at all time-points. Single mTBI resulted in an acute rea ctive astrocytosis at 7 days and increased phospho-tau immunoreactivity that was present acutely and at 1 month, but was not persistent at 6 months. Repetitive mTBI resulted in a more marked neuroinflammatory response, with persistent and widespread astrogliosis and microglial activation, as well as significantly elevated phospho-tau immunoreactivity to 6-months., Conclusions: The neuropathological findings in this new model of repetitive mTBI resemble some of the histopathological hallmarks of CTE, including increased astrogliosis, microglial activation, and hyperphosphorylated tau protein accumulation.

Background: Snowmobiles are increasingly popular recreational, all-terrain utility vehicles that require skill and physical strength to operate given their inherent maneuverability, acceleration, and top speed capabilities. These same characteristics increase the risk of injury with the operation of these vehicles, particularly neurological injury. We characterize our series of 107 patients involved in snowmobiling accidents., Methods: From January 2004 to January 2012, all snowmobiling-related injuries referred to our regional trauma center were reviewed. Information had been recorded in the hospital's trauma registry and medical records were retrospectively reviewed for data pertaining to the injuries, with particular emphasis on neurological injuries and any associated details., Results: A total of 107 patients were identified. Ninety percent of injured riders were male. The mean age was 34.4 years (range 10-70), with 7% younger than age 16. The mean Injury Severity Score was 12.0 ± 0.69 (range 1-34). Although not documented in all patients, alcohol use was found in 7.5% of the patients and drug use found in one patient. Documentation of helmet use was available for only 31 of the patients; of which 13% were not helmeted. Causes included being thrown, flipped, or roll-over (33%), striking a stationary object (27%), being struck by a snowmobile (9%), striking another snowmobile (5.5%) or a car, train, or truck (5.5%), being injured by the machine itself (9%), other (2%) or unspecified (18%). Head injuries occurred in 35% patients, including concussion, subarachnoid hemorrhage, subdural hematoma, contusion, and facial/skull fracture. Spinal fractures occurred in 21% of the patients. Fractures to the thoracic spine were the most common (50%), followed by the cervical (41%) and lumbar (36%) spine. There were also three brachial plexus injuries, one tibial nerve injury, and one internal carotid artery dissection. Average length of stay was 4.98 ± 0.56 days. Disposition was home (78%), home with services (12%), rehabilitation placement (9%), and one death. Details regarding other systemic injuries will also be reviewed., Conclusions: Snowmobiles are a significant source of multi-trauma, particularly neurological injury. Neurosurgeons can play key roles in advocating for neurological safety in snowmobiling.

Background: While numerous laboratory studies have searched for neuroprotective treatment approaches to traumatic brain injury, no therapies have successfully translated from the bench to the bedside. Concussion is a unique form of brain injury, in that the current mainstay of treatment focuses on both physical and cognitive rest. Treatments for concussion are lacking. The concept of neuro-prophylactic compounds or supplements is also an intriguing one, especially as we are learning more about the relationship of numerous sub-concussive blows and/or repetitive concussive impacts and the development of chronic neurodegenerative disease. The use of dietary supplements and herbal remedies has become more common place., Methods: A literature search was conducted with the objective of identifying and reviewing the pre-clinical and clinical studies investigating the neuroprotective properties of a few of the more widely known compounds and supplements., Results: There are an abundance of pre-clinical studies demonstrating the neuroprotective properties of a variety of these compounds and we review some of those here. While there are an increasing number of well-designed studies investigating the therapeutic potential of these nutraceutical preparations, the clinical evidence is still fairly thin., Conclusion: There are encouraging results from laboratory studies demonstrating the multi-mechanistic neuroprotective properties of many naturally occurring compounds. Similarly, there are some intriguing clinical observational studies that potentially suggest both acute and chronic neuroprotective effects. Thus, there is a need for future trials exploring the potential therapeutic benefits of these compounds in the treatment of traumatic brain injury, particularly concussion.

Background: The pterional approach is the most common for AComm aneurysms, but we present a unilateral approach to a midline region for addressing the AComm complex. The pure subfrontal approach eliminates the lateral anatomic dissection requirements without sacrificing exposure. The subfrontal approach is not favored in the US compared to Asia and Europe. We describe our experience with the subfrontal approach for AComm aneurysms treated at a single institution., Methods: We identified 28 patients treated for AComm aneurysms through the subfrontal approach. Patient records and imaging studies were reviewed. Demographics and case data, as well as clinical outcome at 6 weeks and 1 year were collected., Results: Mean patient age was 48 (range 21-75) years and 64% suffered subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). All aneurysms were successfully clipped. Gyrus rectus was resected in 57% of cases, more commonly in ruptured cases. Intraoperative rupture occurred in 11% of cases. The average operative time was 171 minutes. There were two patient deaths. Ninety-two percent of patients had a Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) of 5 at 6 weeks. All unruptured patients had a GOS of 5. At 12 months, 96% of all patients had a GOS of 5., Conclusions: The subfrontal approach provides an efficient avenue to the AComm region, which reduces opening and closing friction but still yields a comprehensive operative window for access to the anterior communicating region.