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Much like outer space, our legal system consists of many unknowns. This is especially true for new developments in emerging technologies, particularly those related to the exploration, exploitation, and utilization of space resources. The recently developed technical feasibility of space mining has advanced ahead of existing international space treaties. While certain articles of the major UN treaties can be interpreted to adapt to the utilization of space resources, most of these provisions were not originally designed to be applied to a space mining regime. Keeping in mind this context, this paper sets out the current international law landscape, including the areas which require further development, and provides guidance and recommendations for governments, international communities, and private actors interested in space resources. To this end, the existing international legal framework is summarized by detailing the significance of the United Nations Space Treaties, the role of customary international law, relevant principles, environmental law, the role of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and previous attempts to govern areas known as res communis. Next, Canadian and United States national law is outlined, including relevant aspects of Canadian national mining law. The paper continues on to analyze various approaches to developing a legal framework for space resource extraction and provides recommendations for industry, national and international actors. Given the widespread support at UN discussions, and years of private actors’ development and involvement in related projects, the necessary societal desire for space mining regulation is present. To work towards enabling space mining, it is suggested that industry set aside a portion of profits to later be used for the ‘benefit of all’ and work with the Canadian government. At a national level, it is recommended that Canada consider passing national legislation similar to that passed by the United States, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, and Japan. Finally, it is recommended that Canada continue to cooperate through international fora to develop non-legally binding principles, otherwise known as ‘soft law’ to contribute to a bottom-up approach.

Minority groups, such as Indigenous peoples, people with disabilities, and people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB), are more likely to experience victimization. To date, most scholars have drawn on the lifestyles and routine activities frameworks to explain victimization patterns. A key issue with these approaches is that they tend to explain victimization through the behaviours and lifestyles of victims, thus taking the motivation of offenders for granted and contributing to an ideology of victim-blaming. This study explores whether minority groups are at an elevated risk of victimization, regardless of their lifestyles or routine activities. This paper also investigates intersectional disadvantage by analyzing the interaction effects of gender and other minority identities on the risk of victimization. Using data from the 2014 Victimization cycle of the General Social Survey, this paper finds that Indigenous peoples and those with disabilities are more likely to be victims of crime, net of lifestyle and routine activities factors, like education, income, employment, marital status, area of residence, alcohol and drug consumption, childhood maltreatment, and evenings spent outside the home. These findings bring the lifestyles and routine activities frameworks into question, suggesting that these minority groups are suitable targets because of their marginalized identities rather than their lifestyles.

This paper examines the extent to which Canada’s refugee policies have fostered the economic integration of refugees. This paper uses content analysis to examine past research, government reports and news articles, to better understand the effectiveness of Canada’s policies on refugee integration. This paper finds that refugees in Canada face severe barriers to economic integration, resulting in high unemployment and a concentration in precarious work. Exploring these issues reveals key limitations within Canadian policies, and the devastating consequences they have for Canadian refugees. Policy suggestions are made based on established international best practices on the economic integration of refugees.

The public’s confidence in police is a crucial factor to a police department’s ability to serve its community effectively. However, not everyone in a democratic society feels confident in the police’s ability to protect and serve their community. Factors including race, gender, age, education, income, neighbourhood crime perceptions, and past discrimination have all been found to have significant impacts on an individual’s confidence in police. These factors have not been evaluated in tandem, nor have they been adequately reviewed in a Canadian context. Using the 2014 Canadian General Social Survey, this study answers the following three questions: 1) How does confidence in police vary by education? 2) Do neighbourhood perceptions of crime and household income affect confidence in police? Using Kimberlé Crenshaw’s theory of intersectionality to identify interacting and multiplying dimensions of disadvantage, this paper further explore 3) how does confidence in police differ across visible minorities and immigrants with similar levels of education? Through descriptive statistics, binary and ordered logistic regressions, this study found that, overall, education was positively associated with confidence in police; individuals who believe they live in high crime neighbourhoods were less likely to have confidence in the police; and household income negatively impacts confidence in police for those who make under $79,999 and visible minorities. Lastly, this study found that immigrants with higher education were less likely to be confident in the police, a finding revealed through an intersectional analysis relative to white, native-born individuals. Police services and policymakers may find these results useful to improve community perceptions and relationships with the public.

The number of international students in Canada continues to rise. Out of the 642,480 international students in Canada, 60% of them want to immigrate to Canada permanently after completing their studies (CBIE, 2018). Using data from a qualitative research study, I will discuss the transition of international students to university at a research institution in Southwestern Ontario. This paper focuses on their transition to Canada through their engagement with on-campus support services. The findings suggest very different levels of support in accessing resources within the International Student Centre compared to other student service offices on campus. Within the purview of the International Student Centre, the findings highlight the struggles that international students have to navigate the basic needs in their new country, including accessing their health care plan, phone plans, and bank accounts. However, students found that the International Student Centre was supportive. When engaging with resources outside of the International Student Centre, like career services, academic advising, and navigating the health care system, participants found themselves unsupported and confused. This study concludes that additional training for staff and faculty outside of the International Student Centre is necessary as the number of international students continues to rise.

Romanticized visions of Khalistan became emotively embedded in the hearts and minds of Sikh-Canadians following the execution of Operation Blue Star. Today, insurgents residing within the contested homeland continue to draw support from Sikh immigrants and their Canadian-born descendants. Perplexingly, while a sizable proportion of second and third-generation Sikh youth advocate for the creation of the theocratic state of Khalistan, many selectively disregard the righteous way of life envisioned by the founders of the Khalsa Panth. This paper presents a conceptual sociological analysis of the diasporic politics of identity and homeland. Although Marx, and other modern social theorists, had presumed that nationalism would eventually disappear, globalization has attributed new importance to the project of nation-building, and imagined political communities. Using the Sikh nationalist liberation movement as the point of departure, this paper demonstrates that ethno-racial markers of identity, and primordial religious mythologies, can be politically employed to distract members of oppressed groups from realizing the material conditions which perpetuate inequality in post-colonial capitalist states. Considering that ethnies are never universally homogenous groups, and that economic incentives exist for seizing state power, nationalist movements can only be understood by identifying the concrete class interests of their principal exponents. While the Punjab problem represents the empirical focus of this paper, the rich sociological insights on inter-communal conflict, identity, and belonging are generalizable beyond this immediate context.

This paper explores the current Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program (SAWP) in Canada. This paper uses content analysis to examine past research, current policies and key examples to examine the program and understand key flaws in the way it is currently administered. This paper finds that migrant workers currently face issues in 4 key areas: working conditions, living conditions, access to health care and isolation (lack of community). Exploring these issues this paper identifies some of the key problems with the SAWP and explores how the Canadian approach does not always match with the current best practices.

This dissertation focuses on Canadian Writing Studies by working with students as co-constructors of knowledge. It stems from my pedagogical and personal desire to understand how students built their knowledge of writing in my first-year writing classroom. By working closely with ten former students, the study explored how their experiences in my writing course at Conestoga College (otherwise known as COMM1085) could inform writing pedagogy. To accomplish this, the study combined Academic Literacies theory with Rhetorical Genre Theory as part of a larger Critical Narrative Inquiry into the students’ narratives of experience. Simply put, these theoretical and methodological frameworks enabled me to consider student experiences with writing in relation to wider social contexts, and then ask what these experiences said about writing pedagogy on many levels. I have organized the results into three levels: the writing classroom, writing programs, and Writing Studies as a field. The results papers are organized such that the first paper looks at classroom-level pedagogy and curriculum, the second paper examines writing studies program staffing in relation to conversations with students, and the third paper synthesizes certain themes that emerged from the research that may inform Canadian Writing Studies pedagogy more broadly. I zoom out with each successive paper to explore a broader element of the conversations and how they inform my position as a Canadian Writing Studies researcher and teacher. Each strand that emerges from these papers adds one more piece to an ever growing disciplinary puzzle that is forming in the Canadian Writing Studies community.

This dissertation examines Canada’s program to employ prisoners of war (POWs) in Canada during the Second World War as a means of understanding how labour projects and the communities and natural environment in which they occurred shaped the POWs’ wartime experiences. The use of POW labourers, including civilian internees, enemy merchant seamen, and combatant prisoners, occurred in response to a nationwide labour shortage. Between May 1943 and November 1946, there were almost 300 small, isolated labour projects across the country employing, at its peak, over 14,000 POWs. Most prisoners were employed in either logging or agriculture, work that not only provided them with relative freedom, but offered prisoners unprecedented contact with Canada and its people. Work would therefore not only boost production but, it was hoped, instil POWs with Canadian mores and values through interaction with guards, civilians, and the natural environment. Rather than attempt a narrative encompassing almost 300 labour projects, this dissertation examines POW labour through a series of five case studies. The first examines prisoners cutting fuelwood in Manitoba’s Riding Mountain National Park while the second and third examine POWs cutting pulpwood in Northwestern Ontario for the Ontario-Minnesota Pulp & Paper Co. and Abitibi Power & Paper Co., respectively. The fourth case study examines POWs employed by Donnell & Mudge in its tannery in New Toronto, Ontario and the fifth examines the practice of employing POWs in farm work in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. Through these case studies, this dissertation examines how how internment officials employed remote parts of Canada as a physical boundary to prevent escape attempts, while also using it as a space to provide POWs with relative freedom as an inducement to work, and how work challenged definitions of who or what was the “enemy”. With significantly more freedom than the typical internee, POWs interacted with civilians and guards on a more familiar level, resulting in illicit fraternizations and relationships between POWs and Canadians. Although such fraternization also triggered considerable protest, these interactions reveal a great deal regarding POWs’ opinions of and attitudes towards Canada and its people as well as Canadian attitudes towards POWs.

Nêhiyawîhcikêwin, Plains Cree Culture, is an oral culture that shares their wisdom, insights, teachings, and warnings through the voices of the elders to the generations that will one day fill their place. Oral narratives have been used by the Nehiyawak nation for hundreds and if not thousands of years, and for particular interest we will focus on âcimowina, oral narratives of a time after Wîsahêcâhk, Elder Brother, but also touch on aspects of âtayôhkêwina, sacred stories that account how the world was shaped, when animals and humans could talk, and when Wîsahêcâhk transformed the world. This paper begins with the importance of oral narratives to various Indigenous peoples around the world as it presents the cultural value and ontological foundations of this intellectual tradition and Indigenous methodology. From there I will discuss Nêhiyawak âcimowina that gives insight into a living past and not a written history, as I present primary sources found in Winona Wheeler’s ‘Cree Intellectual Traditions in History,’ and Neal McLeod’s Cree Narrative Memory: From Treaties to Contemporary Times. As a Plains Cree woman myself, I aim to explore how in depth the cultural protocols of Cree âcimowina are and how oral narratives offer lessons and teachings from a Plains Cree perspective, and I thank Winona Wheeler and Neal McLeod for taking the time to learn and share there insights, and the numerous elders and ancestors that guided, talked, and walked with them as they put forward these pieces. Though I am unable to present every facet of acîmowina, this paper aims to reveal a world outside our conceived realities through Western education and dominant discourse, as we witness the Plains Cree world through Plains Cree voices.

I argue in this paper that it is not a settled issue in Canadian law that copyright exceptions provided in the Canadian Copyright Act can be trumped by contractual agreement, and that a strong argument can be made that they cannot. I first frame the issue by discussing the increasing use of digital rather than print materials in academic libraries, and the potential conflict between subscription agreements and the Copyright Act. I then address three approaches (jurisdictional, purposive, and statutory right) that can be taken to determine whether contractual terms are preempted by statutory provisions, and conclude that, in Canada, copyright exceptions are statutory rights that cannot be removed by contract. Finally, I briefly discuss technological protection measures and argue that their recent inclusion in the Copyright Act does not necessarily indicate legislative support for private ordering.

This paper compares the Government of Canada’s copyright focused approach for encouraging the production of digital content with the U.S. Government’s adoption of a range of incentive systems for the production of content through a content analysis of government policy papers. The first part of the paper examines Canadian policy outlined in the Improving Canada’s Digital Advantage consultation paper and the proposed amendments to the Copyright Act (Bill C-32). The paper argues the government is overly reliant on copyright to encourage the production of creative digital content. Though Bill C-32 would expand the definition of fair dealing and create a user generated content exception, the effectiveness of these measures is severely limited by through the proposed protections for technological protection measures. The second part of the paper examines innovative alternatives to copyright that are being promoted by the U.S. government. The Obama Administration’s Open Government Directive not only provides citizens with access to government data, but also calls on federal departments to use prizes to encourage innovative uses of the data. The U.S. National Institutes of Health has taken a leading role in promoting open access publication of research funded with federal monies by requiring deposit of publications resulting from research in the open access repository PubMed Central. The paper concludes by positing that Canada’s digital economy strategy would be strengthened by providing greater federal support for alternatives to intellectual property such as open data and open access and lessening the focus on copyright as an incentive digital content production.

Over the past few years, Dr. de Clercy and Valere Gaspard have been conducting research on Canadian election spending following the introduction of new pre-election spending regulations for third parties in Canadian federal elections established in 2018, titled, Bill C-76. This summer, Valere spearheaded a research team that was aiming to produce a new study regarding the Americanization of third-party spending in Canada from 2000 onward. After conducting a review of relevant academic literature at the beginning of the summer, it became evident to us there is a lack of research on third-party spending in Canada, especially in relation to the United States. Therefore, this paper intends to identify trends in Canadian third-party spending that are similar to the spending habits of third parties in the United States.

This paper uses the Canadian Community Health Survey of 2003 to examine health perceptions among elderly Canadians (age 60 and over). The results indicate that individual factors explain more of the variation in perceived health compared to community factors (employment rate, incidence of low income, percentage of visible minority, percentage of Canadians and percentage of non-family persons in private households). Among individual factors, age, sense of community belonging, education and income adequacy are particularly important in determining how individuals perceive their health. On the other hand, among community factors, the incidence of low income, percentage of visible minority and percentage of non-family persons had an independent effect on perceived health.

Toward the end of the 20th century, the number of persons reporting Aboriginal ancestry in the Canadian Census increased in a rather dramatic manner. For example, in the 2001 Canadian Census, over 1.3 million Canadians reported an Aboriginal origin, which is an increase of about 20 percent over the previous census in 1996. Given that much confusion and inadequate information characterises public discussions of the demographics of Canada’s Aboriginal population, this paper will review the most fundamental data sources and definitions that have been used in documenting the characteristics of this population, as well as outline some of the most fundamental obstacles to be faced in enacting meaningful quantitative research in this context.

This paper looks at the impact of community and family characteristics on the timing of early life transitions of Canadians born in 1971-75. Effects on the timing of school completion, start of regular work, and home-leaving are examined using a data set that merged the 1995 General Social Survey of the Family with data derived from the enumeration areas of the 1996 Census. Event history techniques of analysis are used to examine timing and trajectories of transition and how they are affected by families and communities. The results show that family and community-level characteristics indicative of availability of material resources, opportunities, and social capital have significant effect on the timing of transition to adulthood, mainly through longer period of education. Family social capital also affects start of regular work and leaving the parental home.

Previous literature has found that rural Canadians are at a health disadvantage compared to their urban counterparts across a number of health outcomes. Less is known, however, about whether this pattern extends to chronic pain, especially in a Canadian context. Using a sample of 1820 Canadian adults aged 25 and older from the Recovery and Resilience COVID-19 Survey, this study explores the relationship between rurality and chronic pain. A series of nested negative binominal regression models were estimated. It was found that rurality is associated with significantly higher pain, though three measures of socioeconomic status explained some of rural disadvantage. Information on which populations are being impacted the most by chronic pain is an important first step in trying to reduce health disparities.

© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Aims and Objectives: The purpose of this study was twofold: examine the relationships among new graduate nurses’ (NGNs) structural empowerment, experience of workplace bullying, and their job turnover intention and assess the relationships between sex, workplace bullying, and job turnover intention. Background: Nursing research has highlighted the issue of workplace bullying and its negative impacts. Despite increased awareness, male nurses and their responses to bullying have not been a significant focus of study. Design: A secondary analysis of data collected from a random sample of 1008 Canadian NGNs from the following: Starting Out: A time-lagged Study of New Graduate Nurses’ Transition to Practice. Methods: All data were analysed using SPSS, and the study model was tested using the SPSS PROCESS macro, specifically Model 4 (for simple mediation). This paper is compliant with the STROBE reporting guideline for cross-sectional studies. Results: Structural empowerment significantly predicted workplace bullying and job turnover intention. Workplace bullying significantly predicted job turnover intention. Structural empowerment mediated job turnover intention through workplace bullying. Male new graduate nurses reported significantly higher workplace bullying than female NGNs yet lower job turnover intention. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate the positive effects of structural empowerment on both decreasing workplace bullying and job turnover intention. Furthermore, findings showed the influence of sex on workplace bullying and job turnover intention. The findings contribute to literature on male NGNs and suggest that they experience significantly higher rates of workplace bullying than their female counterparts. The findings suggest differences exist in the workplace experience for male and female NGNs that future research may help reveal. Relevance to Clinical Practice: The findings suggest structural empowerment may be used to reduce bullying prevalence and reduce job turnover intention consequently. The findings also suggest that some measures are needed to address the higher frequency of bullying experienced by male NGNs.

With a rapidly shrinking proportion of Canadians that live in rural areas, there have been some attempts to settle immigrants in rural communities. With few exceptions, these attempts in Canada have been unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the Mennonite people are considered to be a population that maintains their retention in rural areas with some success. The literature regarding this specific immigrant group is limited and lacks context of the economic environment of Canada today. It is in the interest of government policy to have a working and current understanding of Mennonites’ economic outcomes and retention in rural communities. The integration patterns of all immigrant groups are relevant to Canadian policy as well as for understanding the demographic changes in the growing population. As rural and remote areas experience depleting or stagnating populations, it is increasingly essential to have a working knowledge of the integration patterns of immigrant groups that live in these areas. In this study, I will focus on the economic outcomes of Mexican Mennonite immigrants in Canada to determine whether they integrate into Canadian society differently than immigrant groups that live in the same areas. The research question in this study will be which model of economic integration most appropriately fits the Canadian Mennonite experience? With a literature widely focused on the historical context of this diasporic immigrant group, little is known about their behaviour patterns in the current Canadian context.

Scholars agree that precarious employment is growing across and within all occupations and industries, but little is known on the educational attainment of precarious workers. Some studies suggest that recent graduates, women, and the less educated are more likely to be employed in precarious work. Other research contends that involuntary precarious employment is rising among all groups and educational levels. Using the May 2018 Labour Force Survey, this study explores whether higher education protects men and women from precarious employment, and if higher education has a protective effect on men’s and women’s wages within precarious employment. Findings suggest that women, regardless of their educational attainment, are more likely to be precariously employed. Further, the study shows that higher education does not improve wage earnings for men and women within precarious work. For men, higher levels of education resulted in a wage penalty, whereas women earned a wage premium at lower levels of educational attainment.

Mental Health First Aid is a population health approach that educates people to recognize and respond to mental health challenges. Since 2012, the Mental Health Commission of Canada has worked with six First Nations communities to develop a culturally-relevant version of the program called Mental Health First Aid First Nations (MHFAFN). This paper presents mixed methods, multi-informant data from a national evaluation to assess the extent to which the course was experienced as culturally safe by Indigenous participants, factors that contributed to these experiences, and ways in which cultural relevancy of MHFAFN can be improved. Our evaluation team conducted participant interviews and surveys, as well as facilitator interviews. Nearly all Indigenous participants (94.6%) experienced the course as safe. Participants and facilitators identified a range of factors that promoted cultural safety, including the knowledge and skills of the facilitators and the cultural components of the course. Participants that did not experience safety identified trauma-related factors and facilitation style. The findings suggest that MHFAFN may be situated in a way where shared cultural backgrounds are imperative to the success of the course. Further evaluation of the MHFAFN curriculum, with the goal of continual improvement, may help to further enhance participants' experiences in taking the course.

Background Discrepancies between resident and faculty perceptions regarding optimal teaching and feedback during surgery are well known but these differences have not yet been described in Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery (OTL-HNS). The objectives were thus to compare faculty and resident perceptions of perioperative teaching and feedback in OTL-HNS residency programs across Canada with the aim of highlighting potential areas for improvement. Methods An anonymous electronic questionnaire was distributed to residents and teaching faculty in OTL-HNS across Canada with additional paper copies distributed at four institutions. Surveys consisted of ratings on a 5-point Likert scale and open-ended questions. Responses among groups were analysed with the Wilcoxon-Mann Whitney test, while thematic analysis was used for the open-ended questions. Results A total of 143 teaching faculty and residents responded with statistically significant differences on 11 out of 25 variables. Namely, faculty reported higher rates of pre and intra-operative teaching compared to resident reports. Faculty also felt they gave adequate feedback on residents’ strengths and technical skills contrary to what the residents thought. Both groups did agree however that pre-operative discussion is not consistently done, nor is feedback consistently given or sought. Conclusion Faculty and residents in OTL-HNS residency programs disagree on the frequency and optimal timing of peri-operative teaching and feedback. This difference in perception emphasizes the need for a more structured approach to feedback delivery including explicitly stating when feedback is being given, and the overall need for better communication between residents and staff.

Guided by prison abolition ethic and intersectional feminism, my key argument is that Charter section 15 is the ideal means of eradicating solitary confinement and its adverse impact on women who are Aboriginal, racialized, mentally ill, or immigration detainees. I utilize a provincial superior court’s failing in exploring a discrimination analysis concerning Aboriginal women, to illustrate my key argument. However, because of the piecemeal fashion in which courts can effect developments in the law, the abolition of solitary confinement may very well occur through a series of ‘little wins’. In Chapter 11, I provide a constitutional analysis, arguing that solitary confinement unduly violates Aboriginal women’s Charter section 15 right against discrimination, and therefore, Aboriginal women must not be subjected to it. Hopefully, a discrimination challenge against solitary confinement spearheaded by Aboriginal women will pave the way for future discrimination challenges by other vulnerable women.

Background: The Child and Youth Mental Health (ChYMH) assessment system was developed by interRAI (i.e., an international collective of researchers and clinicians from over thirty countries) in response to the unprecedented need for a coordinated approach to delivery of children's mental health care. Many interRAI instruments are used across Canada and internationally, but the ChYMH represents the first assessment specifically for children and youth. In the present paper, a short overview of the development process of the ChYMH is provided, and then the psychometric properties of several embedded scales on the ChYMH are examined. Methods: Participants included 1297 children and youth and their families who completed the ChYMH after being referred to mental health agencies within Ontario, Canada. In addition, smaller subsets of participants (N = 48-53) completed additional criterion measures, including the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS), the Child and Adolescent Functional Assessment Scale (CAFAS), the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and the Brief Child and Family Phone Interview (BCFPI). Results: Results demonstrated that the ChYMH subscales had strong internal-consistency (Cronbach's higher than.70), and correlated well with the criterion measures. Conclusions: Findings support the clinical utility of the ChYMH for use among clinically referred children and youth. Implications for children's mental health assessment and practice are discussed.

ObjectiveWe sought to conduct a major objective of the CAEP Academic Section, an environmental scan of the academic emergency medicine programs across the 17 Canadian medical schools.MethodsWe developed an 84-question questionnaire, which was distributed to academic heads. The responses were validated by phone by the lead author to ensure that the questions were answered completely and consistently. Details of pediatric emergency medicine units were excluded from the scan.ResultsAt eight of 17 universities, emergency medicine has full departmental status and at two it has no official academic status. Canadian academic emergency medicine is practiced at 46 major teaching hospitals and 13 specialized pediatric hospitals. Another 69 Canadian hospital EDs regularly take clinical clerks and emergency medicine residents. There are 31 full professors of emergency medicine in Canada. Teaching programs are strong with clerkships offered at 16/17 universities, CCFP(EM) programs at 17/17, and RCPSC residency programs at 14/17. Fourteen sites have at least one physician with a Master’s degree in education. There are 55 clinical researchers with salary support at 13 universities. Sixteen sites have published peer-reviewed papers in the past five years, ranging from four to 235 per site. Annual budgets range from $200,000 to $5,900,000.ConclusionThis comprehensive review of academic activities in emergency medicine across Canada identifies areas of strengths as well as opportunities for improvement. CAEP and the Academic Section hope we can ultimately improve ED patient care by sharing best academic practices and becoming better teachers, educators, and researchers.