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Research suggests that whilst not more likely to offend, autistic people are overrepresented within the Criminal Justice System. To date, prevalence estimates are available only for male autistic offenders. Thus, this research aimed to provide the prison-reported rate of autistic female prisoners currently residing in the female prison estate in England. All 12 of the female prisons in England were contacted to request the following information: (1) the total number of autistic females; and (2) the total female prison population. Findings show an English female prison-reported rate of autism of 4.78% indicating that autism is approximately 13.7 times higher in female prisons compared to the general population. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first research article to focus exclusively on female autistic offenders. Further research is needed to understand the risk factors for offending, offender characteristics, offence types/patterns and autistic experience of the Criminal Justice System for female autistic offenders. What is already known about the topic? Autistic people are reported to offend at lower or comparable rates to non-autistic people. However, autism is overrepresented within male prisons due to a number of suggested reasons including an increased chance of being caught and a lack of autistic sensitive interventions which lead to longer stays in prison. To the authors' knowledge, no papers currently exist focussing on autistic females in prison. What does this paper add? To the authors' knowledge, this is the first piece of research to solely include autistic females in prison settings. This research provides an estimate of how many autistic people are in female prisons. All 12 female prisons in England were contacted. Data provided indicate a prison-reported female autism rate of 4.78%. This prison-reported female autism rate is 13.7 times higher than the prevalence of autistic females in the general population. Implications for practice research or policy? Autism is overrepresented in female prisons; however, to the authors' knowledge no current research exists on this group to understand their needs or experience. Autistic females often have differing requirements to males and the lack of research highlights the need for future research to investigate areas such as factors which increase the risk of offending, offences typically committed and the female autistic experience of the Criminal Justice System. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many, but not all, reconviction studies are undertaken over relatively short periods of time (such as 2 or 5 years) and are usually used to gauge the impact of various disposals against one another. This study, based on one cohort of probationers who started being supervised in England during 1997–1998, takes a different tack, and explores their reconvictions between 1997 and 2022, a period of 25 years, and touches upon a range of topics germane to this field, such as: how many reconvictions were racked up?, who was reconvicted?, which offences were they convicted of? and what accounts for their reconvictions? The second half of the article focuses on the issue of 'crime-free gaps' and provides further insight into this recent development in criminal careers research and in so doing builds upon an earlier article by Joanna Shapland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Work on deterrence demonstrates that high perceptions of formal sanctions (e.g., arrest) and informal sanctions (e.g., negative reactions from others) both relate to decreased offending behaviors. However, there are numerous contextual factors that influence the strength of formal and informal sanctions on crime. The current study uses the Pathways to Desistance data to explore how formal and informal sanctions relate to offending, and how legal cynicism moderates this process. Findings from a series of longitudinal models show that higher perceptions of both formal and informal sanctions are related to decreased offending, while higher legal cynicism is linked to increased offending. Legal cynicism moderates the relationship between formal—but not informal—sanctions and offending. Policy implications are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deterrence theory is the framework traditionally used to underpin road policing practices. However, there have been several developments in deterrence theory. This study uses an integrated approach and tests four hypotheses derived from classical deterrence theory, Stafford and Warr's reconceptualization and informal sanctioning. Regression analysis of self-reported data from a sample (N = 623) of Queensland's drivers provided evidence that punishment avoidance, both direct and vicarious, significantly predicted offending driving behaviors. Moreover, while offending driving behaviors appeared unrelated to formal sanctioning, including certainty, severity, and celerity, they were inversely associated with informal sanctions involving shame, guilt, and concern over losing the respect of friends. This indicates that policing agencies may be able to reduce road offending by implementing interventions targeted at the informal sanctions associated with these behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The link between schizophrenia and homicide has long been the subject of research with significant impact on mental health policy, clinical practice, and public perception of people with psychiatric disorders. The present study investigates factors contributing to completed homicides committed by offenders diagnosed with schizophrenia referred to a Swiss forensic institution, using machine learning algorithms. Data were collected from 370 inpatients at the Centre for Inpatient Forensic Therapy at the Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry. A total of 519 variables were explored to differentiate homicidal and other (violent and non-violent) offenders. The dataset was split employing variable filtering, model building, and selection embedded in a nested resampling approach. Ten factors regarding criminal and psychiatric history and clinical factors were identified to be influential in differentiating between homicidal and other offenders. Findings expand the research on influential factors for completed homicide in patients with schizophrenia. Limitations, clinical relevance, and future directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well-known that experiences of out-of-home care (OHC; foster-family care and residential care) are linked to criminal behavior. Less is known how criminal activity in the OHC population develops over the life course and to what extent such development is characterized by desistance or persistence. Using population-based longitudinal register data for more than 740,000 Swedish men and women, of which around 2.5% have experience of OHC, followed until age 40, results from group-based trajectory modelling and multinomial regression suggest that OHC-experienced individuals with various timing and duration of placement, especially men first placed as teenagers, have substantially elevated likelihood for persistent offending compared to peers without OHC experience. However, most OHC-experienced followed pathways characterized by desistance. Our findings have implications for understanding the dynamics of offending in OHC populations and underscores the necessity for interventions that can prevent the onset of criminal careers, as well as disrupt or modify the ongoing paths of offending within this disadvantaged group of individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We argue that reconceptualizing social bond theory (SBT) through incorporation of dual agency and change can identify unique causal change sequences, improve its ability to explain offending, and generate new questions about it. The reconceptualization recognizes that individuals and those with whom they interact play an ongoing role in contributing to the bond. It shows that changes in the bond can contribute to changes in delinquency through three sequences, each with a unique over-time pattern that depends on how bond agents respond to delinquency. We identify implications for SBT—highlighting that theoretical arguments about static effects do not necessarily equate to straightforward predictions about change effects—and, more broadly, efforts to advance theories of offending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the joint impact of co-occupants and codefendants criminal behavior on adolescent criminal behavior using official Dutch police records. Co-occupant and co-defendant criminal behavior were used as proxies for family and peer criminal behavior, respectively. Data spanning 8 years (2010–2017) were analyzed from 56,802 adolescents, their co-occupants and co-defendants. Cross-lagged analyses were used to investigate prospective effects of co-occupant and co-defendant delinquency on adolescent delinquency. For males, prospective effects were found of co-defendant on adolescent delinquency violent offences, violent property offences, and nonviolent property offences. For females, prospective effects of co-defendants' delinquency were found for nonviolent property offences. Our findings underscore that having co-defendants with delinquent behavior is an important risk factor for delinquent activities in adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies suggest that there is a linear and positive relationship between family size and delinquency. However, questions exist about this assessment. Drawing on prior scholarship and analyses, we revisit and test the family size-delinquency relationship. We also test whether the effect varies by sibling relatedness. Results indicate no consistent or large criminogenic effect of larger families on delinquency and that the relationship is considerably more complicated than what prior work has identified. Some beneficial effects are identified for children in full biological households, some criminogenic effects are identified for children from non-full biological households, and the relationships are curvilinear. Findings underscore the need to revisit research on family size and delinquency and to take into account sibling relatedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although racial and ethnic differences in offending are well-established, the processes associated with those relationships for U.S. Hispanic persons are less known. Using a nationally representative sample of U.S. Hispanic adults, the current study contributes to the literature by focusing on three factors thought to be particularly salient for understanding offending among U.S. Hispanic persons: acculturation, ethnic identity, and discrimination. We examine the association of each of these with offending, as well as the potential interactions between them. We found that acculturation and discrimination were positively associated with violent and nonviolent offending and ethnic identity was associated with nonviolent offending. For nonviolent offending, there was a positive interaction between acculturation and discrimination, such that experiences of discrimination intensified the relationship between acculturation and nonviolent offending. Findings are discussed in relation to both individual and contextual factors that are associated with health and behavioral outcomes, including offending, for U.S. Hispanic persons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research suggests that convicted persons are more likely than non-convicted persons to suffer poor health. However, few longitudinal studies have investigated associations between health and offending across generations. Using the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, this article prospectively investigates the relationship between health and offending across generations and between genders. At the average age of 25, third generation convicted males and females reported a higher incidence of serious drug use than non-convicted persons. Convicted males reported a higher incidence of mental illness and self-harm, whereas convicted females reported a lower incidence of physical illness, mental illness, self-harm and hospitalizations when compared to non-convicted females. Convicted males reported a higher incidence of industrial accidents, sports injuries and fight injuries, but a lower incidence of road accidents, whereas convicted females were more likely to report road accidents. Like their fathers, convicted males show worse health compared to non-convicted individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Acquired brain injury (ABI) is a serious problem that disproportionately affects individuals in correctional services, but relatively little is known about ABI risks and correlates in forensic psychiatric services. Methods: We conducted a retrospective chart review of all admissions to a high secure forensic hospital in Ontario, Canada from January 2009 to December 2012 (n = 637) and collected data on ABI, psychiatric diagnoses, developmental disadvantage, criminal offending, and in-hospital aggression. A k- means cluster analysis was employed to assess risk factors by which men with ABI could be identified and multivariate general linear models were used to identify ABI-related differences in offending history and in-hospital aggression. Results: One-fifth of the men had a documented ABI indicator. Based on our cluster analysis, ABI was more likely to be identified by greater adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), more health problems from pregnancy to childhood, and lower socioeconomic status, suggesting that ABI within the forensic context is associated with greater developmental disadvantage. Men with ABI had more serious pre-admission offences, but not more serious admission offences or in-hospital aggression. Men with ABI were more likely than those without to have higher scores on the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide or to be diagnosed with mood and personality disorders, and less likely to have a schizophrenia diagnosis, suggesting an association between ABI and general mental health pathologies but not with psychotic illness. Conclusions: The disadvantage of ABI among men in forensic psychiatric hospitals is most likely evinced in antisocial behaviour rather than serious mental illness. Given that ACEs are likely to precede or co-occur with ABI, strategies that mitigate ACEs hold promise for ABI prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The burden of self-injury among offenders undergoing inpatient treatment in forensic psychiatry is substantial. This exploratory study aims to add to the previously sparse literature on the correlates of self-injury in inpatient forensic patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). Employing a sample of 356 inpatients with SSD treated in a Swiss forensic psychiatry hospital, patient data on 512 potential predictor variables were retrospectively collected via file analysis. The dataset was examined using supervised machine learning to distinguish between patients who had engaged in self-injurious behavior during forensic hospitalization and those who had not. Based on a combination of ten variables, including psychiatric history, criminal history, psychopathology, and pharmacotherapy, the final machine learning model was able to discriminate between self-injury and no self-injury with a balanced accuracy of 68% and a predictive power of AUC = 71%. Results suggest that forensic psychiatric patients with SSD who self-injured were younger both at the time of onset and at the time of first entry into the federal criminal record. They exhibited more severe psychopathological symptoms at the time of admission, including higher levels of depression and anxiety and greater difficulty with abstract reasoning. Of all the predictors identified, symptoms of depression and anxiety may be the most promising treatment targets for the prevention of self-injury in inpatient forensic patients with SSD due to their modifiability and should be further substantiated in future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Most studies that examine psychiatric illness in people who offend have focused on incarcerated samples, with little known about the larger population of individuals with criminal justice system contact. We examine the overlap between proven offences and psychiatric diagnoses with an emphasis on experiences for Indigenous Australians. Methods: In a population-based birth cohort of 45,141 individuals born in Queensland, Australia, in 1990 (6.3% Indigenous), psychiatric diagnoses were identified from hospital admissions between ages 4/5 and 23/24 years and proven offences were identified from court records (spanning ages 10–24 years). Prevalence rates for offending, psychiatric diagnoses and their overlap were examined for Indigenous and non-Indigenous individuals. Associations between specific psychiatric diagnoses and types of offending were examined using logistic regressions. Results: There were 11,134 (24.7%) individuals with a finalised court appearance, 2937 (6.5%) with a diagnosed psychiatric disorder and 1556 (3.4%) with a proven offence and diagnosed psychiatric disorder, with Indigenous Australians significantly overrepresented across all outcomes. Compared with non-Indigenous Australians, Indigenous Australians were younger at their first court finalisation (Cohen's d = −0.62, 95% confidence interval = [−0.67, −0.57]), experienced a higher number of finalisations (d = 0.94, 95% confidence interval = [0.89, 1.00]) and offences (d = 0.64, 95% confidence interval = [0.59, 0.69]) and were more likely to receive custodial (d = 0.41, 95% confidence interval = [0.36, 0.46]) or supervised (d = 0.55, 95% confidence interval = [0.50, 0.60]) sentences. The overlap between offending and psychiatric illness was more pronounced for Indigenous Australians compared with non-Indigenous Australians (14.8% vs 2.7%). Substance use disorders were the most prevalent psychiatric diagnosis among individuals with a court finalisation (9.2%). Conclusions: Indigenous Australians were significantly overrepresented in court finalisations and psychiatric diagnoses. Indigenous Australians with a psychiatric diagnosis were at highest risk of experiencing a court appearance, emphasising the importance of culturally appropriate mental health responses being embedded into the criminal justice system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory of mind (ToM) impairment is associated with poor social functioning in some psychological disorders (e.g., autism and schizophrenia). ToM deficits have also been linked with offending behavior in the theoretical literature. However, no review has examined the empirical evidence for such a link. We carried out a systematic review to provide a critical overview of studies involving ToM ability in offenders. We included studies published in English that used an instrument to measure at least one aspect of ToM. Twenty-eight eligible studies were identified and coded. Our findings reveal a generally mixed literature. Taking study quality into account, our findings suggest that offenders and nonoffenders do not differ in their first-order ToM. For second-order ToM, findings are mixed, even when only the highest quality studies are examined. Studies exploring advanced ToM showed mixed results overall, though the highest quality research appeared to indicate that offenders have impairments in advanced ToM which means that they may have difficulty understanding various mental states such as pretense, white lies, irony, double bluffs, and sarcasm. We suggest that well-controlled future studies, which also measure other facets of ToM (e.g., distinguishing between cognitive and affective ToM or examining ToM content), are needed to fully understand the role of ToM in offending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The behavioural and cognitive difficulties of some adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may increase their risk of contact with the criminal justice system (CJS) as a potential suspect. There has been limited investigation of ASD and offending and available evidence is mixed. A retrospective review was completed of medical records of 1570 adults (17–75 years old) who were referred for an ASD assessment over a 17-year period (April 2003 to February 2020). Of the adults diagnosed with ASD, 23% had previous contact with the CJS. Being male or diagnosed with co-occurring attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or psychotic disorder were risk factors for CJS contact. However, the rates of contact with the CJS or for specific offences in the ASD group were never higher than adults referred to our service but not diagnosed with ASD. We did not include a general population comparison group, therefore cannot say how rates of CJS contact in ASD compare with the general population. Further health services research for adults with ASD is warranted, as modifying the treatable risk factors (i.e. ADHD) could reduce contact with the CJS. In addition, joint working between CJS and mental health services could reduce the risk of adults with ASD having CJS contact. There has been growing interest in offending and contact with the criminal justice system (CJS) by people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, it is not clear whether people with ASD offend more than those without ASD. Studies have started to look at whether there are particular offences people with ASD are more likely to commit and whether there are any factors that can affect whether someone comes into contact with the CJS as a potential suspect. This study looked at the patients who attended an ASD diagnostic service over a 17-year period to see the rate of contact with the CJS of those who were diagnosed with ASD and whether there were any particular factors that might increase the risk of CJS contact. Nearly a quarter of the ASD group had some contact with the CJS as a potential suspect. Factors that seemed to increase whether someone with ASD was more likely to have contact with the CJS were being male, being diagnosed with ADHD, and being diagnosed with psychosis. This study is one of the largest studies to investigate the rate of CJS contact as a potential suspect in a sample of adults with ASD in an attempt to give a clearer picture of what might influence someone with ASD to engage in offending behaviour in order to try to see what mental health services can offer to reduce the likelihood of someone with ASD coming into contact with the CJS, for example, treatment for another condition or support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Five-Level Risk and Needs system has been proposed as a common language for standardizing the meaning of risk levels across risk/need tools used in corrections. Study 1 examined whether the Five-Levels could be applied to BARR-2002R (N = 2,390), an actuarial tool for general recidivism. Study 2 examined the construct validity of BARR-2002R risk levels in two samples of individuals with a history of sexual offending (N = 1,081). Study 1 found reasonable correspondence between BARR-2002R scores and four of the five standardized risk levels (no Level V). Study 2 found that the profiles of individuals in Levels II, III, and IV were mostly consistent with expectations; however, individuals in the lowest risk level (Level I) had more criminogenic needs than expected based on the original descriptions of the Five-Levels. The Five-Level system was mostly successful when applied to BARR-2002R. Revisions to this system, or the inclusion of putatively dynamic risk factors and protective factors, may be required to improve alignment with the information provided by certain risk tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is limited research which has examined the developmental nature of friendships and their relevance for offending. This study examined heterogeneity in the development of justice system-involved friendship proportionality and its relevance for predicting offending continuity in emerging adulthood. Having a greater proportion of such peers within a friendship collective as individuals exit adolescence may lead to continued risk of offending in adulthood. The Pathways to Desistance data were used in analyses. Group-based trajectory modeling was used to identify developmental patterns of justice system-involved friendship proportionality during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Logistic regression was used to assess the relevance of trajectory group assignment for predicting offending risk in emerging adulthood. Findings indicated that a six-group trajectory model best fit the data. All other trajectory groups in the model indicated a lower risk of offending in emerging adulthood than the High Chronic justice system-involved friendship proportionality group. Sensitivity analyses indicated that separation from criminal peers following adolescence may be a more conservative predictor of offending risk in emerging adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some criminologists have focused on understanding the role of childhood experiences on an individual's likelihood of offending during adulthood. Although research has consistently linked these two phenomena, little is known about the extent to which childhood victimization influences later criminal behavior. The current study analyzed self-reported data to examine the abused–abuser relationship in the context of intimate relationships. Specifically, the study examined the direct effects of victimization across three types of offending, and whether or not individual characteristics in such a relationship were significant mediators. Using a multivariate OLS regression, a significant relationship was observed between childhood victimization and adulthood offending. Likewise, results revealed that individual characteristics significantly mediated this relationship. Policy implications of these observations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Therapy alliance has been studied largely in voluntary psychotherapy but less is known about its predictive factors for positive alliance and treatment outcome in forensic populations. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between offenders' emotional states and therapy alliance. Moreover, we were interested in the predictive impact of emotional states early in treatment on alliance at 18 months into treatment. Self-ratings of emotional states and alliance by 103 male offenders, and therapist-ratings for therapy alliance were examined using hierarchical multiple regression analyses. Participants were primarily convicted for violent of sexual offenses, and were diagnosed with antisocial, borderline or narcissistic personality disorders. Healthy emotional states were predictive of mid-treatment agreement on therapy goals and therapist ratings on tasks within the therapy. Unhealthy emotional states were predictive of patient-rated agreement on tasks. Emotional states were not predictive for the reported therapist/patient bond or global alliance ratings. This study emphasizes the importance of healthy emotional states in treatment of offenders with personality disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, populations of Color are overrepresented across virtually all arenas of the criminal justice system. These realities have led scholars to bring race and ethnicity to the forefront of our examinations of crime and justice. Understanding how culturally specific factors distinctly impact a group is imperative when it comes to understanding why some engage in offending while others do not. Analyzing the pathways specified by the theory of African American Offending (TAAO) among a Latinx population can help shed light on whether this theory may be broadly applicable to populations of Color. This insight can aid in the development of culturally appropriate interventions and policies to combat the institutional racism that increases marginalized populations' likelihood of contact with the criminal justice system. Thus, we explore how well TAAO pathways apply to a Latinx sample of youth. Findings lend support for culturally distinct examinations. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although studies point to a relationship between debt and crime, there is a limited understanding of their reciprocal relationship and possible mediating risk factors. Moreover, knowledge about the prevalence and scope of debt among offenders is lacking. Therefore, the present study analyzed 250 client files including risk assessment data from the Dutch probation service on the prevalence of debt and possibly related risk factors. The results show that debt is highly prevalent and complex, which underlines the importance of acquiring more knowledge about debt as a potential risk factor for relapse during supervision. It was found that problems with regard to childhood and living situation, education and work/daytime activities, and mental and physical health may be possible underlying risk factors in the relationship between debt and crime. These insights can help professionals adequately support clients with regard to debt in order to prevent recidivism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite growing interest in strength-based rehabilitation frameworks, relevant internal/external resources that are likely to facilitate the rehabilitation of detained female adolescents (DFA) have been understudied. This study aims to fill this gap by studying the role of young women's personal resilience and interpersonal support in building fulfilling and prosocial lives 4 years after youth detention, thereby examining the strength-based good lives model (GLM). Forty-nine former DFA (Mage = 20.75) completed questionnaires about resilience, support, Quality of Life (QoL), and offending. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that young women with more resilience displayed higher QoL and less offending, while more support was associated with higher QoL only. The relationship between resilience and QoL/offending did not depend upon the level of support. Overall, our results support the applicability of the GLM to former DFA, showing evidence for the importance of both internal and external resources in building fulfilling and prosocial lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a comparative review of the application of four contextualist therapies in the treatment of antisocial behavior and offending. The therapies reviewed are functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP), acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and mode deactivation therapy (MDT). A descriptive and comparative review was conducted through a search carried out in both general and specific databases related to each therapy. We included a total of 44 studies treating any type of antisocial behavior or offending. Results show that these interventions have been used to treat challenging behavioral patterns, inmates' institutional behaviors, exhibitionism, at-risk adolescents' aggressive conducts, and offending behaviors performed by juveniles who committed robbery and/or serious sexual offenses. The main conclusions are that the four therapies show very positive outcomes: Although FAP and ACT have been used more sparsely, DBT and MDT have been employed in a larger number of interventions and using more controlled comparative designs. The therapeutic components that seem to be relevant to understanding in a transversal way how changes in behavior are achieved are acceptance/validation of clients' histories of neglect and abuse and clients' commitment to behaving toward their valued directions in life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminal expertise relates to the notion that some individuals may develop domain-specific offending skills that differentiate them from those with less skills or experience (i.e., novices). In the expertise literature, burglary has emerged as a distinct type of "expert" offense, therefore the current study sought to determine whether criminal expertise is more evident in the crime-commission process of sexual burglary compared to sexual robbery. We used binary logistic regression to compare the pre-crime, crime, and post-crime behaviors of 870 cases of hybrid sexual assault that occurred during the commission of either a burglary (N = 319) (or) robbery (N = 479), both of which involved personal theft from a stranger victim. Findings suggest that the crime commission process of sexual burglary involves a more sophisticated modus operandi and greater expertise in detection avoidance (e.g., strategies to protect their identity and destroying and removing evidence) compared to sexual robbery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Journeys to crime, or distances traveled from residences to places of alleged crimes, describe how people enter into the criminal justice system. Race, as an ascribed characteristic of individuals and a determinant of community conditions, introduces disparities in journeys to crime. Use of opioids among nonurban, White populations and changing law enforcement responses prompt inquiry into how race affects journeys to crime associated with opioid possession. This study evaluates Black–White differences in travel among persons arrested for opioid possession in Delaware. It applies race and rationality theory to assess the effects of race and racialized context on travel patterns. Multilevel models reveal travel to possess opioids is greater for White relative to Black Delawareans. Community conditions such as marijuana possession arrest rates and concentrated disadvantage have varying impacts on travel from various geographic areas. Racial–spatial differences in travel show persistent disparities in drug law enforcement amid efforts to curb opioid misuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research has indicated that Major Depressive Disorder and exposure to violence are risk factors for offending. However, researchers have yet to examine how this disorder may predict recidivism risk among juvenile offenders and how the disorder moderates the effect of exposure to violence. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to determine the impact of Major Depressive Disorder on time to recidivism. Cox proportional hazard modeling was applied to examine Major Depressive Disorder as a moderator of exposure to violence. Results indicated that participants with Major Depressive Disorder demonstrate greater risk for recidivism post-adjudication. The proposed moderation effect was not supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a candidate and as president, Donald Trump heightened the salience of immigration, portraying those crossing the nation's Southern border as "bad hombres" and advocating building a wall blocking their access to the United States from Mexico. Based on a 2019 MTurk study of 465 White adults, the current study found that a clear majority of respondents rejected this stereotype of Southern immigrants as "bad hombres," judging them to be just as law-abiding as Americans. Importantly, however, the analysis revealed that two innovative measures--Hispanic resentment and, in particular, White nationalism--were consistently related to perceptions of immigrants as criminogenic. Given the growing demographic diversity of the United States, future research should consider the increasing influence of racial/ethnic resentment and White group identity on public opinions about immigration and other justice issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research indicates that individuals with Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are more likely to offend, and that some ACEs, such as offending and child maltreatment, are transmitted from one generation to the next. However, the extent to which ACEs are transferred across generations and its subsequent impact on offending has not been examined. Using data from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, this study examined the intergenerational transmission of ACEs and the extent to which this was associated with offending in the second generation. Although parental ACEs increased the likelihood of the subsequent generation's ACEs, other risk factors attenuated this effect. Additionally, ACEs' impact on the second generation's convictions was also weakened after controlling for other risk factors. This provides evidence of intergenerational transmission of ACEs and additionally the effects of ACEs on the risk of offending. However, these associations are not straightforward and other risk factors likely play an important role in elucidating these relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prison inmate health surveys consistently show high proportions of prisoners have mental health problems; however, scholarly opinion is divided on the contribution of mental illness to offending. Some contend that mental illness is not a cause of offending and that mental health treatment will not reduce offending. Others maintain mental health treatment can reduce the risk of offending among persons with a significant mental illness. In this article we report the results of a rigorous evaluation of the effectiveness of mental health treatment in reducing offending amongst a cohort of defendants with a diagnosis of psychosis. We find evidence that the provision of mental health treatment to defendants with a psychotic illness does significantly reduce the risk of further offending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Criminologists have long viewed morality as a critical element in offending. However, two factors limit the theoretical impact of prior work. First, no overarching framework for describing the nature and role of morality has been developed. Second, morality has been measured in a narrow manner as the extent to which individuals disapprove of particular acts of offending. To address these limitations, we examine the utility of a moral psychological framework—Moral Foundations Theory (MFT)—that fits remarkably well with the conceptions of morality found in criminological theorizing (i.e., that morality inhibits offending, has intuitive and pluralistic dimensions, and under certain circumstances may motivate offending). Methods: We use negative binomial regression to model self-reported counts of violence, group violence, theft, property damage, marijuana use, and illegal phone use while driving, in a large national sample of Icelandic youths (n = 10,710). Results: We find that individualizing moral intuitions centered on rights and autonomy and binding moral intuitions centered on social order and cohesion are uniquely associated with different types of offending and exhibit inhibiting or motivating effects depending on the outcome. Conclusion: MFT holds considerable promise as a framework for conducting criminological research on the relationship between morality and offending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anderson's Code of the Street thesis suggests that stronger belief in, and adherence to, subcultural "street code" norms increases the risk of criminal and aggressive behaviors, particularly among adolescents and young adults in urban communities. This study uses a meta-analysis to assess the overall relationship between individual belief in the street code and risk of offending. Effect sizes (n = 38) from 20 unique studies produced a weighted correlation (r) of.11, indicating a belief in the street code had a positive association with offending across all studies. The effect is strongest for violent offending (.13) and among samples comprised of adolescents (.14), as predicted by Anderson's theory. Even after accounting for competing theoretical and established correlates of offending, modest effects of street code beliefs on offending remained. These findings indicate that overall, the street code is a more general theory than Anderson originally predicted. Directions for future research on the code are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates gendered differences within Latinx experiences using a GST framework. We address four hypotheses: (1) Latinos and Latinas will vary in their degrees of risk for and resilience against criminal behavior; (2) Latinos and Latinas will experience strains to various degrees; (3) Latinos are more likely to respond to strain with violent and serious crime than Latinas due to the types of strains they face and their varying degrees of risk and resilience; and (4) ethnic identity will provide different degrees of resilience against violent and serious offending between Latinos and Latinas. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus on veterans in research is not a novel topic; however, the majority of studies are related to trauma, employment, mental health, suicide, and substance misuse. The criminal justice system involvement with veterans is a topic that has yet to be examined to a great extent. This study, conducted with adult male prisoners, elicited information from six veterans regarding their experiences of being in the armed forces, leaving the armed forces, and becoming involved in the criminal justice system. Responses were evaluated using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) and three main themes were identified: "you're baptized into the army," "them and us," and "operational mind-set"; each of which comprised a number of superordinate themes. The research highlights that although it is important to acknowledge the heterogenic nature of this group, it is equally important to note that much of their thinking and behavior may be similar to those that have not had these experiences. As such, there is a need to reduce the notion that they are separate and different to other prisoners, requiring different treatment. The study highlights that many of the offending behavior programs and interventions already available to prisoners would be appropriate for this group. The current research supports the merit in creating a service in prisons that will allow ex-servicemen to meet together and access the support that is available to them. The implications of the research are discussed further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This population-based case-control study examines the association between psychosis and criminal convictions in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, using data from several health and offending administrative data collections. Cases were individuals diagnosed with psychosis between 2001 and 2012 (n = 86,461). For each case, two age- and sex-matched controls with no diagnosis of psychosis were selected. Criminal convictions were identified using the NSW Reoffending Database. Cases were approximately 5 times more likely to offend compared with controls, adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 4.68, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [4.55, 4.81], and accounted for 10% of all criminal convictions in NSW between 2001 and 2015. The prevalence of at least one criminal conviction was 30% among cases compared with 6% among controls. The results from this study confirm previous work regarding the association between psychosis and criminal convictions. More work is needed to better articulate the mechanisms for this association to enable prevention strategies to be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Desistance theorizing has concentrated on the male experience resulting in relatively less knowledge about how criminalized women negotiate nonoffending, particularly from a qualitative perspective. Drawing on semi-structured interviews with eight formerly incarcerated women in Victoria, Australia, this research explores the anticipation of desistance in the context of experiences preceding and following incarceration. The findings highlight how individual-level intentions to cease offending can be eclipsed by historical and ongoing disadvantage and trauma. In emphasizing the gendered socio-structural barriers affecting women's desistance efforts, this article contributes to a small, yet important, emerging discourse—a form of critical feminist desistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate the longitudinal associations between patterns of housing vacancies, neighborhood social disorder, and crime in the city of New Orleans. Using large-scale administrative and contextual data collected from the year 2012 to 2018, our spatiotemporal regression analysis provides empirical evidence for the salient effects of housing vacancy on neighborhood level of property crime and violence. In addition, the spillover effect of housing vacancy is observed on the neighborhood level of drug offense, property crime, and violence. These results potentially identify vacant properties as a modifiable target for intervention to reduce urban crime and suggest that community-based programs aiming to enhance informal social control and collective efficacy may be as important as broken window policing programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I propose the gender gap in delinquency is linked to adolescents' orientation to gender-normative behavior and empathic development. I use longitudinal data on 1,525 youth from the Denver Youth Survey to analyze relationships among gender, empathy, and delinquency. I find girls exhibit higher levels of empathy across adolescence than do boys, and these differences emerge in preadolescence. Empathy is inversely related to delinquency, and is predictive of fraud and theft, but not violent delinquency. Finally, empathy partially mediates the effect of being male on delinquency. I therefore argue the gender gap in delinquency can be explained—in part—by adherence to gender norms governing empathetic expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes data collected in the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, which is a prospective longitudinal study of 411 London males from Ages 8 to 61. It aims to investigate interactions between Age 8 and Age 10 psychosocial risk factors and a biological factor (resting heart rate), measured at Age 18, in predicting convictions up to Age 61 and high antisocial personality scores at Ages 32 and 48 (combined). The present analyses suggest that a high resting heart rate acted as a protective factor against harsh parental discipline and a depressed mother, or conversely that these childhood risk factors predicted antisocial outcomes only when they coincided with a low resting heart rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: A key challenge facing justice health service providers is addressing and treating the high rates of mental illness among offenders. It is well documented that rates of mental illness are substantially higher within prison populations compared to the general population. As such, the need to provide ongoing treatment to prisoners experiencing mental health issues is of fundamental importance. Prisoners experiencing mental health disorders are more likely to have poorer social outcomes on release, including a greater likelihood of recidivism and poorer health outcomes. The growing numbers of justice-involved individuals from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds signal the need for justice systems to adapt to the changing demographic.Conclusions: In this commentary, we argue that greater efforts to explore the nature and prevalence of mental illness among CALD groups in custody, where such concerns are often intertwined with additional complex personal, environmental and historical criminogenic risk factors, are desperately needed to improve system responses and reduce recidivism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) and the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) are among the most widely used adolescent risk assessment tools, they conceptualize and measure strengths differently. As such, in this study, we compared the predictive validity of SAVRY Protective Total and YLS/CMI Strength Total, and tested conceptual models of how these measures operate (i.e., risk vs. protective effects, direct vs. buffering effects, causal models). Research assistants conducted 624 risk assessments with 156 youth on probation. They rated protective factors at baseline, and again at 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month follow-up periods. The SAVRY Protective Total and YLS/CMI Strength Total inversely predicted any charges in the subsequent 2 years (area under the curve scores = 0.61 and 0.60, respectively, p <.05). Furthermore, when adolescents' protective total scores increased, their self-reported violence decreased, thus providing evidence that these factors might play a causally relevant role in reducing violence. However, protective factors did not provide incremental validity over risk factors. In addition, because these measures are brief and use a dichotomous rating system, they primarily captured deficits in protective factors (i.e., low scores). This suggests a need for more comprehensive measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Juvenile justice systems today have various methods to sanction serious, violent, and chronic delinquents. One of these methods is through blended sentencing. Broadly, blended sentencing processes allow for juvenile justice sanctioning first and then, if needed, criminal justice sanctioning—including placement in adult prisons. The current study examines the recidivism outcomes of blended-sentenced youth transferred to adult prisons following a period of state juvenile incarceration compared with a matched group of blended-sentenced youth that avoided adult prison transfer following state juvenile incarceration. Drawing on data from 905 serious delinquent offenders sentenced between 2005 and 2013 in Texas, the current study used Propensity Score Matching and found no post-release recidivism differences between those transferred to adult prison following a period of state juvenile incarceration and those who were released from state juvenile incarceration to the community without experiencing adult prison incarceration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have recently identified protective factors that decrease the effects of risk factors on later offending. Others have investigated how offending risk factors affect other life outcomes, such as employment and health. The current study combined these areas to identify protective factors that predicted life success through mid-adulthood. The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development was used to identify risk-based and interactive protective factors for later life success among males at risk for poor life success. Across three risk conceptualizations, several protective factors were identified that predicted life success in a variety of domains at age 48. This research indicates that early childhood interventions may not only help reduce future offending but also increase the child's chances of doing well in other life domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Research suggests that antisocial lifestyles constitute significant health risks. However, there are marked individual differences in the stability of antisocial behaviour. These different offending pathways may bear differential risks for adult health.Design: Injury and illness data were collected prospectively in the longitudinal Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development.Setting: Working-class inner-city area of South London.Participants: Participants included the 411 men from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, with interview data collected at ages 18, 32 and 48 years for each individual.Main Outcome Measures: Organic illness, hospitalisation and injuries.Results: By age 48, adjusted odds ratios showed that the incidence of organic illness was higher among Life-Course-Persistent, Late-Onset offenders and offenders in general. Based on adjusted odds ratios at age 32, the incidence of hospitalisations was higher for Late-Onset offenders. Adjusted odds ratios at age 48 also showed that the incidence of hospitalisations was higher for all three offender types and offenders in general. Our results also provide evidence that offenders were more likely to suffer injuries than non-offenders.Conclusions: The findings of this study imply that preventing individuals from offending is likely to have substantial benefits for health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder estimated to have elevated prevalence in forensic populations (approximately 4.5%). It has been suggested that offenders with autism spectrum disorder engage more frequently in crimes against the person and sexual offences than other types of offences such as property, driving and drug offences. To date little is empirically known about the reasons why autistic individuals engage in sexual offences, yet understanding the motivation(s) for offending are key to developing and implementing effective interventions to help reduce both initial offending and also re-offending. In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine autistic sexual offenders in prisons and probation services across England and Wales. Thematic analyses revealed five main themes (social difficulties, misunderstanding, sex and relationship deficits, inadequate control and disequilibrium). Analyses indicated that social skills difficulties, lack of perspective/weak central coherence, misunderstanding the seriousness of their behaviours and a lack of appropriate relationships were the main reasons for offending reported by this group of autistic sexual offenders. Findings highlight a need to develop sex and relationship education interventions which are tailored to the needs of autistic individuals, to address both their reported reasons for offending and their reported lack of sexual knowledge and awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between victimization and subsequent maladaptive behaviors such as offending is well established. To a lesser degree, a contextual lens has been used to examine how neighborhood characteristics influence the overlap between victimization and offending. The existing literature has yet to explore how the neighborhood context moderates the victim–offender overlap among young women, specifically, or whether the type of force used during sexual victimization or offending matters. This study uses data from The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to examine whether concentrated disadvantage moderates the impact of sexual victimization on subsequent offending for women. Results indicate that young women who experience sexual victimization are more likely to engage in general offending regardless of neighborhood type. However, closer examination reveals that, when taking into account the type of force used in sexual victimization (physical or coerced) and the type of offending (violent, property, drug use), the overlap does indeed vary across neighborhoods. Specifically, results indicate that only coerced sexual victimization significantly affects property offending in neighborhoods with high levels of concentrated disadvantage. Related to violent offending, physical sexual victimization has a strong positive impact in less disadvantaged neighborhoods. Finally, coerced sexual victimization is significantly associated with an increased likelihood for drug use, and this relationship is consistent across neighborhoods. The findings suggest that nuances in the nature of victimization and offending need to be taken into account to fully understand the victim–offender overlap across neighborhood context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study reassesses the generational disparity in immigrant offending. Patterns and predictors of offending are compared using traditional peer-based models and an alternative within-family (parent–child dyad) model. Method: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979; NLSY79) and NLSY-Child and Young Adult (NLSY_CYA) data are merged to create an intergenerational data set to compare generational disparities in immigrant offending across peers and within families. Differences in self-reported offending (prevalence and variety) by immigrant generation are assessed using a combination of descriptive analyses (χ2 and analysis of variance) and regression models. Results: While NLSY_CYA children generally are at a greater risk of offending compared with the NLSY79 mothers, the difference in offending is greatest between first-generation mom and second-generation child dyads. Disparities in offending are driven in large part by exceedingly low levels of offending among first-generation immigrants. Conclusion: Although the factors driving an increase in offending between parent–child generations are not unique to immigrants, they are amplified in immigrant families. Whereas the second generation is remarkably similar to their U.S.-born counterparts in terms of their involvement in crime, suggesting a high degree of swift integration, the greater involvement in crime among the children of immigrants compared to their foreign-born mothers suggests a decline in well-being across successive generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article draws on life-course and desistance theory to explore the relationship between the factors of age, ethnicity, offence type, and incarceration history for a sample of 1,035 women released from custody between January 2013 and January 2014, data gathered from the Australian Queensland Corrective Services administrative dataset. It also explores their impact on recidivism and the time between release and reoffending (known as "time to failure") until September 2017. The data indicate substantial rates of reoffending with 70% of the sample reoffending (a return to custody/parole/probation) within the 2- to 4-year observation period. Notably, 50% of women reoffended in their first year post-release, 36% within 6 months, and 23% within the first 3 months. Regression results show that violent offenders are considerably more likely to be recidivists and older offenders are less likely to be recidivists; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander offenders were also more likely to reoffend. Incarceration history is significantly associated with reoffending and "time to failure". It is clear that there needs to be increased intervention and support for female offenders during the first 2 years post-release from custody. This is particularly important for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and those with an extensive history of incarceration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Aotearoa/New Zealand, culturally embedded rehabilitation programmes have been developed to reduce criminal offending among the indigenous Māori population. Currently, there is a lack of research investigating the experiences of these programmes from clients' perspectives. This study aimed to enhance understandings of the lived experiences of Māori men who were participating in a residential therapeutic community (TC) programme in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Semistructured interviews were conducted one-on-one by a psychology master's student who was a staff member at the TC and also of Māori descent. Seven Māori TC residents aged 22 to 48 were interviewed about life in a TC. Thematic analysis of the interview data yielded three themes: (a) "The importance of healing family relationships"; (b) "The relevance of Māori culture in rehabilitation"; (c) "Increased self-awareness." The findings highlight the significance of holistic approaches that emphasize culturally relevant approaches and the involvement of family members in the treatment of substance-use disorders and offending behaviour among indigenous populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a representative household survey data, we examine the generality of self-control, the predictive strengths of sanction threats, and the interaction between criminal propensity and sanction threats in explaining criminal probability. Although the data confirm the generality of self-control predictions of deviant/criminal behavior in the Turkish cultural context, the effects appear quite modest and contingent on fear of informal sanctions and temptation. Consistent with the findings of recent studies, a small interaction between self-control and sanction threats suggests that deterrence is greatest among individuals with weak self-control. However, there is no interaction between sanction threats and temptation, suggesting that sanction fear is equally likely among individuals regardless of their level of temptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]