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Background: Cladribine is a highly effective immunotherapy that is applied in two short-term courses over 2 years and reduces relapse rate and disease progression in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis (MS). Despite the short treatment period, cladribine has a long-lasting effect on disease activity even after recovery of lymphocyte counts, suggesting a yet undefined long-term immune modulating effect. Objectives: Our aim was to provide a more profound understanding of the detailed effects of cladribine, also with regard to the patients' therapy response. Design: We performed an open-labeled, explorative, prospective, single-arm study, in which we examined the detailed lymphocyte subset development of MS patients who received cladribine treatment over 2 years. Methods: We performed in-depth profiling of the effects of cladribine on peripheral blood lymphocytes by flow cytometry, bulk RNA sequencing of sorted CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and CD19+ B cells as well as single-cell RNA sequencing of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in a total of 23 MS patients before and at different time points up to 24 months after cladribine treatment. Data were correlated with clinical and cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) disease activity. Results: Flow cytometry revealed a predominant and sustained reduction of memory B cells compared to other B cell subsets after cladribine treatment, whereas T cell subsets were slightly reduced in a more uniform pattern. The overall transcriptional profile of total blood B cells exhibited reduced expression of proinflammatory and T cell activating genes, while single-cell transcriptomics revealed that gene expression within each B cell cluster did not change over time. Stable patients displayed stronger reductions of selected memory B cell clusters as compared to patients with clinical or cerebral MRI disease activity. Conclusion: We describe a pronounced and sustained effect of cladribine on the memory B cell compartment, and the resulting change in B cell subset composition causes a significant alteration of B cell transcriptional profiles resulting in reduced proinflammatory and T cell activating capacities. The extent of reduction in selected memory B cell clusters by cladribine may predict treatment response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autoantibodies against contactin-associated protein 2 (CASPR2) are usually associated with autoimmune encephalitis and neuromyotonia. Their association with inflammatory neuropathies has been described in case reports albeit all with distal symmetric manifestation. Here, we report a patient who developed distal arm paresis, dominantly of the right arm, over the course of 1 year. Electroneurography showed a conduction block of motor nerve conduction, nerve ultrasonography a swelling of the right median and ulnar nerve and flow cytometry an increase in natural killer (NK cells) in the blood and natural killer T (NKT) cells in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), therefore indicating a multifocal motor neuropathy-like (MMN-like) phenotype. CASPR2 autoantibodies were detected in serum and CSF. Through immunotherapy with intravenous immunoglobulins the patient showed clinical and neurographic improvement. We therefore describe the first association of CASPR2 autoantibodies with a MMN-like clinical manifestation, extending the spectrum of CASPR2-associated diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) can in rare cases occur in natalizumab-treated patients with high serum anti-JCPyV antibodies, hypothetically due to excessive blockade of immune cell migration. Objective: Immune cell recruitment to the central nervous system (CNS) was assessed in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients stratified by low versus high anti-JCPyV antibody titers as indicator for PML risk. Methods: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cell counts of 145 RRMS patients were quantified by flow cytometry. Generalized linear models were employed to assess influence of age, sex, disease duration, Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), clinical/radiological activity, current steroid or natalizumab treatment, as well as anti-JCPyV serology on CSF cell subset counts. Results: While clinical/radiological activity was associated with increased CD4, natural killer (NK), B and plasma cell counts, natalizumab therapy reduced all subpopulations except monocytes. With and without natalizumab therapy, patients with high anti-JCPyV serum titers presented with increased CSF T-cell counts compared to patients with low anti-JCPyV serum titers. In contrast, PML patients assessed before (n = 2) or at diagnosis (n = 5) presented with comparably low CD8 and B-cell counts, which increased after plasma exchange (n = 4). Conclusion: High anti-JCPyV indices, which could be indicative of increased viral activity, are associated with elevated immune cell recruitment to the CNS. Its excessive impairment in conjunction with viral activity could predispose for PML development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision research has experienced a shift from simple algebraic theories of choice to an appreciation of mental processes underlying choice. A variety of process-tracing methods has helped researchers test these process explanations. Here, we provide a survey of these methods, including specific examples for subject reports, movement-based measures, peripheral psychophysiology, and neural techniques. We show how these methods can inform phenomena as varied as attention, emotion, strategy use, and understanding neural correlates. Two important future developments are identified: broadening the number of explicit tests of proposed processes through formal modeling and determining standards and best practices for data collection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Distinct lesion topography in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) might be due to different antigen presentation and/or trafficking routes of immune cells into the central nervous system (CNS). Objective: To investigate whether distinct lesion patterns in multiple sclerosis (MS) might be associated with a predominance of distinct circulating T-helper cell subset as well as their innate counterparts. Methods: Flow cytometric analysis of lymphocytes derived from the peripheral blood of patients with exclusively cerebral (n = 20) or predominantly spinal (n = 12) disease manifestation. Results: Patients with exclusively cerebral or preferential spinal lesion manifestation were associated with increased proportions of circulating granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) producing TH1 cells or interleukin (IL)-17-producing TH17 cells, respectively. In contrast, proportions of peripheral IL-17/IL-22-producing lymphoid tissue inducer (LTi), the innate counterpart of TH17 cells, were enhanced in RRMS patients with exclusively cerebral lesion topography. Conclusions: Distinct T-helper and T-helper-like innate lymphoid cell (ILC) subsets are associated with different lesion topography in RRMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]