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An increasing number of countries have, or are moving towards, reforming cannabis policies. New Zealand is also moving in this direction and the government will hold a referendum on the legalization of recreational cannabis in September 2020. To inform imminent public and political discussions it is important to understand how current cannabis use is controlled. Research suggests that cannabis law has been ineffective in NZ. Internationally, informal controls, rather than the law, have been found to shape cannabis use by creating a threshold for normalization, but the attitudes shaping this threshold are unknown. This study aimed to examine drug acceptability attitudes, specifically students' attitudes towards the illegal use of cannabis and their attitudes towards peers who abstain, sometimes use, or are heavy users of cannabis, to identify the factors that control cannabis use. Using a mixed methods approach, university students recruited their peers (N = 535) to complete a pen and paper survey investigating perceptions towards 3 cannabis user prototypes (abstainers, moderate users, heavy users), concern for legality of cannabis use, and the integration of cannabis into the student culture (perceptions of peers' use, ease of acquisition, and availability). Perceptions of peers' lifetime and regular use were 82% and 38.5%, respectively. Participants rated cannabis as easy to acquire and likely to be available at a typical student social occasion. The majority stated that the law does not deter use (92.7%); participants perceived the law to be soft and that they are unlikely to get caught. Participants' descriptions of the 3 cannabis user prototypes revealed a threshold for normalization. For instance, abstaining was perceived to be associated with positive attributes (such as being studious), linked to being less sociable, and linked to being less likely to be judged. Moderate use of cannabis was perceived to be normal and sociable. Heavy use was perceived to be associated with having negative attributes, such as being addicted, unhealthy, and an underachiever, and negative drug labels. Our findings revealed that cannabis use is not controlled by the law, but by informal thresholds of control. Moderate cannabis use is accepted whereas heavy cannabis use is not. We extended research by identifying the attitudes shaping these thresholds, in particular that negative outcomes associated with heavy use deters the normalization of this behavior. We argue that policy must be informed by, and build on, these informal controls. The negative perceptions associated with heavy use also raise concerns regarding the well-being of heavy users, and coupled with the ineffectiveness of cannabis law, lend support towards a health model for regulating cannabis. Furthermore, insights into the negative perceptions associated with heavy use could inform health interventions on the types of concerns that will resonate with users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A high proportion of unwanted or unplanned pregnancies may be alcohol-exposed due to contraception failure or non-use. Nevertheless, data on contraception and alcohol use in the context of the risk of alcohol-exposed pregnancies are sparse. Objectives: To describe contraception use and alcohol consumption in sexually active non-pregnant women and investigate the factors associated with less effective contraception methods. Study Design: A cross-sectional national survey of women aged 18–35 years. Methods: Data from non-pregnant women who were sexually active (n = 517) were analysed. Descriptive statistics were used to report demographics, consumption, and contraception measures. Logistic regression was used to investigate the factors associated with less effective contraception among drinkers. Results: The majority of participants were younger (46%), of NZ European ethnicity (78%), not in a permanent relationship (54%), with some or completed tertiary education (79%), employed (81%) and not users of the community services card (82%). Twenty-five percent of women were smokers, 94% consumed alcohol, and 72% binged at least 'monthly or less'. Most women used the pill (56%), and 20% of drinking women were using a contraception method with a 10% or more annual failure rate after 1 year of use. Women who binged 'weekly or more often' had similar odds of using less effective contraception as women who 'never' binged (p > 0.05). Younger Māori or Pacific women (odds ratio = 5.99; 95% confidence interval of odds 1.15 – 31.2; p = 0.033) and women who had no tertiary education (odds ratio = 1.75; 95% confidence interval of odds 0.00 – 3.06; p = 0.052) had higher odds of using less effective contraception. Conclusion: With 20% of women at risk of an alcohol-exposed pregnancy, public health measures to address alcohol consumption and the effective use of contraception are critical to reducing the risk for alcohol-exposed pregnancies in NZ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine gendered patterns in the use of violence in response to the partner's violence ("fighting back"). Within each gender, we examined if socio-demographic differences in prevalence were present, and if contextual factors influenced the use of violence against a violent partner. Data from a large, population-based sample of New Zealand adults was used to identify ever-partnered respondents who had experienced physical IPV (n = 407 women, and n = 391 men). Weighted percentages and 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs) were calculated for the use of violence against a violent partner, stratified by gender. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the association between each contextual risk factors and the use of violence against a violent partner. For both men and women, at the multivariable level, use of violence against a violent partner was associated with contextual factors related to the abuse. However, for almost all of these variables a higher proportion of women than men experienced the risk factor; for example, a higher proportion of women than men reported having experienced severe IPV (57.6% women; 43.7% men), injuries resulting from IPV (44.5% women, 15.0% men), and fear of a partner (22.7% women, 4.9% men). Women were also more likely to report experiencing other types of IPV (particularly sexual IPV) and were more likely to report that their children were present at the time of violence. These factors contributed to the higher proportion of women who reported fighting back at least once (53.4% of women and 22.3% of men). Health, social, and legal services need to conduct appropriate and thorough assessment of nature and context (current and historical) of the violence that individuals have been exposed to as part of service provision. Assessments need to be carried out with a gender-lens in order to provide comprehensive and appropriate responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]