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Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: This paper investigates whether sustained immersion in a dominant second-language (L2) environment alters morphological processing strategies compared to those of L1-immersed speakers. Furthermore, we assess the methodological usefulness of a language-mode task in light of the validity of conducting native processing research on L2-immersed speakers. Design/methodology/approach: We use the design and stimuli of a previous long-lag visual lexical decision task conducted with native German speakers in Germany and use this group as a control. Thirty-two native German speakers resident in the UK (>2 years; minimal day-to-day German use) participated in two experimental sessions (one containing a 20-minute conversation task in German). Data and analysis: The data shows clear differences between facilitation patterns of L1 and L2-immersed participants. L2-immersed speakers display decreased sensitivity to subtle morphological differences as well as facilitation in a form condition similar to effects seen in L2 processing. Lexical decisions of pseudowords based on plausibility, however, remain similar. While the pre-experiment language-mode task resulted in overall faster responses, there was no effect on processing patterns. Findings/conclusions: L1 morphological processing is affected by continued exposure to a dominant second language with sensitivity to the internal structure or differences of morphologically complex items decreasing. The attrition group shows certain similarities to L2 morphological processing. Our findings also call for caution in the recruitment of L2-immersed experiment participants. Originality: Research on morphological processing in language attrition is scarce and no previous work has examined complex derived words. The addition of a principled manipulation of the pre-experiment task is also uncommon. Significance/implications: The possible similarity of L1-attrition and L2-learner processing challenges the concept of ‘native’ processing and the notion of ‘nativeness’ as a stable property. Further comparison of these populations may lead to a more thorough understanding of the adaptability of our processing system.

The premier data on leader survival focus on the violent, dramatic means by which leaders ‘exit’ office. This information, vital for many research questions, constitutes a valuable public good for the community. Yet, it provides an incomplete picture of the political rise and fall of world leaders. The burgeoning study of leaders using survival analysis requires a fine-grained understanding of not just when, but why and how leaders lose power. We cannot, for example, conclude that a leader’s exit implies a successful application of international pressure if her removal stems from pre-set constitutional laws and the immediate successor has long been considered the heir apparent. The Regular Turnover Details dataset remedies this problem. Two principal variables report information about the manner of each leader’s exit and the relationship between outgoing and incoming leaders, allowing analysts to arbitrate between exits that suggest political failure and those that don’t, identify non-political leaders (such as interim and technocratic executives), and determine whether leaders constitute heirs to power or challengers thereto.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: How does second dialect acquisition in a second language compare to that in a first language in terms of rates and predictors of second dialect vocabulary use? Design/methodology/approach: A lexical preference task was completed by four groups of participants residing in Australia: first language speakers of Australian (L1D1) and American (L1D2) English, and first language speakers of Russian who acquired Australian (L2D1) and American (L2D2) English first. The participants named objects which are denoted by different words in American and Australian English (e.g. bell pepper vs capsicum). Data and analysis: The response was coded as either American or Australian, and percentage of use of Australian items was calculated for each group. Findings/conclusions: L1D1 used Australian words the most and L1D2 the least. L2D1 and L2D2 fell between the two L1 groups. L1D2 rate of use was predicted by proportion of life spent in Australia. L2D1 were more likely to choose Australian words if they had lived in Australia longer and had positive attitudes toward Australia. L2D2 were less likely to use Australian words the longer they had lived in the USA. Similar, but not identical, factors predict second dialect acquisition in the first and second languages. Originality: The research is innovative in considering second dialect acquisition in second language speakers and creates a bridge between second language and second dialect acquisition research. Significance/implications: The finding that second language speakers may be more flexible in second dialect acquisition than first language speakers has important implications for our understanding of cognitive and social constraints on acquisition.

The purpose of this study was to explore the phenomena of participation in a democratic large ensemble experience in a secondary public school setting. Specific research questions included (a) Do high school band students feel capable of performing a music work without teacher intervention? (b) In what ways do high school band students describe the experience of performing in a student-led large ensemble? (c) What music decisions were most often made by high school band students in a student-led large ensemble? and (d) Were there any changes in high school students’ perceptions of autonomy following a student-led large ensemble music rehearsal and performance experience? Findings illustrated that the democratic experience increased student autonomy and music discrimination across larger distances in the classroom as students listened to other nonsimilar sections. Furthermore, student voice, self-efficacy, and personal affect also increased as a result of the experience. Students felt empowered to offer their rehearsal critiques; however, a lingering concern is that participants continued to feel that their peers would not listen to their opinions on rehearsal issues or strategy usage.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: This article aims to explore the link between linguistic subordination and linguistic inferiority complexes in the context of English as a second language (ESL) migrants in Australia. We address the following research questions: (a) To what extent and how do ESL migrants in Australia suffer from linguistic subordination? (b) To what extent and how is this linguistic subordination linked to linguistic inferiority complexes for ESL-migrants in Australia? (c) What are the main social implications of the link between linguistic subordination and linguistic inferiority complexes for ESL migrants? Design/methodology/approach: The study involved the participation of 150 participants who were observed using linguistic ethnography. The participants engaged in interviews and focus group discussions so that we could explore the psychological consequences of linguistic subordination that they encountered. Data and analysis: The interviews and focus group discussions were transcribed and analysed with consideration to the context, as well as the participants’ utterances and paralanguage. The study followed alternative quality criteria. Findings/conclusions: Many ESL migrants in Australia face linguistic subordination for the way they speak English. Consequently, these migrants suffer from linguistic inferiority complexes – psychological and emotional damages, which result in self-marginalisation, self-vindication, loss of sense of belonging, social withdrawal, fear, anxiety and the erosion of self-confidence. We find that there is a direct link between linguistic subordination and linguistic inferiority complexes. Originality: This article addresses a gap that exists regarding the link between linguistic subordination and the development of linguistic inferiority complexes, discusses how this has real-life consequences for ESL migrants, and explores how this may be overcome. Significance/implications: ESL migrants need support so that they can cope with their experiences of linguistic subordination, thus helping them better deal with issues related to linguistic inferiority complexes. In addition, the broader society needs greater education on how their comments and actions can affect the wellbeing of others.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The aim of this study is to examine whether the complete (re-)activation of interface domains in the heritage language (HL) is possible or whether interfaces are likely to preserve features typical for the HL even after many years of residing in the country of origin. Design/methodology/approach: We present the group analysis of direct object marking in Turkish, which is a morphology-syntax-pragmatics interface, of Turkish-German returnees, who returned to Turkey after puberty and have been residing in the country for a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 34 years, and compare them with the control group consisting of Turkish speakers who have been living in Turkey all their lives. Data and analysis: The data were collected using a narrative task, a completion task and a grammaticality judgement task, and analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Findings/conclusions: The analysis of the narrative task revealed that the returnee participants used case-marking on direct objects productively depending on the discourse and syntactic position of the direct object in their heritage Turkish. However, their performance on the completion and grammaticality judgement tasks diverged from those of the control group. These findings can be considered as a piece of evidence that interface domains stay obstinate to complete (re-)activation and may preserve features typical for the HL many years after the return to the country of origin. Originality: The study suggests relevance of the Interface Hypothesis to the process of HL (re-)activation. Significance/implications: The study contributes to the research on the HL development of returnees after their return to the country of origin.

This study was undertaken with the intent of exploring three overarching research questions concerning music performance anxiety (MPA). The first objective was to collect descriptive accounts of the everyday experiences of MPA in educational settings. The second objective was to investigate the adaptive coping strategies students utilized to manage their MPA, which were distilled from the data in light of the self-regulated learning framework. Finally, the perceived institutional support around MPA was investigated. A semi-structured interview approach was used as the main data collection method ( n = 10). All students interviewed perceived themselves as experiencing MPA to some extent; however, the intensity of these experiences varied. The most common MPA coping strategies mentioned were increasing individual practice time, and mental skill practices. All students mentioned the importance of preparation, which was associated with self-confidence, leading to higher self-efficacy beliefs, which in return had a positive impact on their management of MPA. Teachers and peers were identified as integral to sustaining students’ well-being and MPA regulation efforts. A positive teacher attitude toward the management of MPA appeared to encourage students’ help-seeking efforts.

Aims and objectives/purposes/research questions: The aim of the article is to describe what language contact phenomena are present. The research questions are as follows: (a) what types of code-switching (CS) are at work; (b) is there any preference for any particular type of CS; and (c) what Jewish (seemingly) monolingual songs in Slavic languages can tell us about contact varieties of Slavic used by Jews. Design/methodology/approach: Collecting texts of Yiddish–Slavic and Jewish folk songs in Slavic languages; and qualitative analysis of CS and structural change. Data and analysis: Sixty-two Slavic–Yiddish texts were chosen from Jewish songs’ collections and CS instances analysed. Findings/conclusions: Both insertions and alternations are present but alternations are preferred. There is an asymmetry between Yiddish insertions into Slavic (nouns) and Slavic insertions into Yiddish (all parts of speech). Alternations may be just renditions of the same meaning in another language but most often they play the same role as in naturalistic speech described in the literature on multilingual communication (change of topic, addressee, etc.). Originality: Previous research on multilingual Jewish songs concentrated on the choice of languages and interpretation of the symbolic role that each language plays but not structural analysis of multilingual texts. Significance/implications: Now that some tendencies are identified, it remains to be seen whether naturalistic Yiddish–Slavic speech exhibits the same patterns of CS.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The region of Lower Kolyma (LK), Russia, exhibits a unique multilingual situation which involves five languages from five different families: Even (Tungusic), Yakut (Turkic), Chukchi (Chukotko-Kamchatkan), Tundra Yukaghir (Yukaghir), and Russian (Slavic, Indo-European). Our research aims to show the ongoing changes in this setting and to explain the historical background of these trends. Design/methodology/approach: Our approach combines the results of a sociolinguistic survey, published data about the history and ethnography of the region, and observed linguistic effects of language contact. Data and analysis: The sample for our sociolinguistic study includes 196 individuals, born between 1878 and 1996. To assess the patterns of multilingualism we use two parameters: the number of acquired languages and the composition of the linguistic repertoires. To model the linguistic situation in the 20th century, an average life span parameter is used. Findings/conclusions: We demonstrate that in 1940 to 1980 it was most common for LK residents to use all languages of the region. Partly, at least, this was a consequence of the introduction of boarding schools, which became an additional domain for interethnic communication. In recent decades we observe a tendency for a shift to Russian with a concomitant decrease in speakers of the minority languages. Originality: We use an approach of retrospective interviews which allows us to cover a large time period and to provide an overview of changes in the multilingual setting during the 20th century. Thus, even though multilingualism in this area has already been discussed by Vakhtin, the methodological approach is different. Significance/implications: The paper contributes to the field of sociolinguistics, presenting a new case study of multilingualism from an area of Siberia which is understudied in this regard.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The paper tests the hypothesis that the larger the population of language speakers, the smaller the number of second languages mastered by these speakers. Design/methodology/approach: We match the size of the population of 29 Dagestanian languages and the number of second languages spoken by the speakers of these languages from 54 villages, and run a Poisson mixed effects regression model that predicts the average number of second languages spoken by speakers from first-language communities of different size. Data and analysis: Data for this study comes from two sources. The information on the population of Dagestanian languages is based on the digitalized census of 1926. The information on the number of second languages in which the residents of Dagestan are proficient is taken from the database on multilingualism in Dagestan (4032 people). Findings/conclusions: The study supports the hypothesis that the size of language population is negatively correlated with the multilingualism of the language community. Originality: The paper is the first to test the correlation between the size of language population and the level of multilingualism of its speakers using statistical methods and a large body of empirical data. Significance and implications: Population size is a factor that could have influenced patterns of language evolution. The population is interrelated with other factors, one of which is long-standing multilingualism. The methodological lesson of this research is that there is a difference in the level of multilingualism within a range of populations where the largest was about 120,000 people. Limitations: The data is limited to one multilingual region. The revealed correlation probably does not hold for areas where language communities do not interact with their neighbors and even speakers of minority languages can be monolingual, or for the territories where many people migrated and the area where a language is spoken was discontinuous.

Research questions: The objectives of this study are to identify the need for Social Enterprises (SEs) as an alternative form of working in the Finnish labour market, what alternative forms of co-operation between such types of SEs could be and how larger local companies can support the sustainable operation of these small SEs by employing immigrants and the long-term unemployed. Theory: This article draws on the corporate social responsibility CSR theory of traditional enterprises to better explain the factors that can facilitate co-operation between SEs and private enterprises, thereby reaching the sustainable operation of SEs that are run by socially disadvantaged groups of people in Lapland. Phenomenon studied: SE is a new phenomenon in Lapland. There are a few SEs in the region that are struggling to maintain their existence in a sustainable manner. It is harder for the members of such SEs to run businesses or to work and to become successful in Lapland; however, obtaining employment or running a proprietorship is not an alternative (Yeasmin, 2016) for these disadvantaged people. Case context: The article contributes to the studies on the economic integration and labour market sustainability of immigrants and long-term job seekers, and particularly to the socio-economic integration of the long-term unemployed by focusing on the necessity-driven social entrepreneurship networking model in a sparsely populated region, that being the region of Lapland in Northern Finland. Findings: The disadvantaged groups need access to the labour market in Lapland, and social alliances between various partners (e.g., private, public and SE) under different social circumstances (e.g., CSR) can generate alternative options for co-operation to sustain the existence of such SEs in Lapland. An analysis explores future recommendations for co-operation that might sustain SE’s existence and development and might also increase long-term prospects for targeted SEs. Discussion: Lapland-based SEs operated by immigrants or the long-term unemployed are issues and themes that do not fall within the responsibility of any single authority or any single sector. Successfully running SEs demands positive interaction and social innovation strategies among many social partners. Networking with a variety of public stakeholder groups alongside the private sector needs to see an investment of social resources for mapping the phenomena on the topic of social economy, which is a social innovation process that might enable such SEs to have successful outcomes in Lapland.

Situations of catastrophic social change, such as COVID-19, raise complex, interdisciplinary research questions that intersect health, education, economics, psychology, and social behavior and require mixed methods research. The pandemic has been a quickly evolving phenomenon, which pressures the time necessary to perform mixed methods research. Natural language processing (NLP) is a promising solution that leverages computational approaches to analyze textual data in “natural language.” The aim of this article is to introduce NLP as an innovative technology to assist with the rapid mixed methods analysis of textual big data in times of catastrophic change. The contribution of this article is illustrating how NLP is a type of mixed methods analysis and making recommendations for its use in mixed methods research.

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: The Alorese in eastern Indonesia are an Austronesian community who have inhabited two Papuan-speaking islands for approximately 600 years. Their language presents a paradox: contact with the neighbouring Papuan languages has led to both complexification and simplification. This article argues that these opposite outcomes of contact result from two distinct scenarios, and formulates a hypothesis about a shift in multilingual patterns in Alorese history. Design/Methodology/Approach: To formulate a hypothesis about the discontinuity of multilingual patterns, this article first sketches the past and present multilingual patterns of the Alorese by modelling language contact outcomes in terms of bilingual optimisation strategies. This is followed by a comparison of the two scenarios to pinpoint similarities and differences. Data and Analysis: Previous research shows that two types of contact phenomena are attested in Alorese: (a) complexification arising from grammatical borrowings from Papuan languages, and (b) morphological simplification. The first change is associated with prolonged child bilingualism and is the result of Papuan-oriented bilingual strategies, while the latter change is associated with adult second language (L2) learning and is the result of universal communicative strategies. Findings/Conclusions Complexification and simplification are the results of two different layers of contact. Alorese was first used in small-scale bilingual communities, with widespread symmetric multilingualism. Later, multilingualism became more asymmetric, and the language started to undergo a simplification process due to the considerable number of L2 speakers. Originality: This article is innovative in providing a clear case study showing discontinuity of multilingual patterns, supported by linguistic and non-linguistic evidence. Significance/Implications: This article provides a plausible explanation for the apparent paradox found in Alorese, by showing that different outcomes of contact in the same language are due to different patterns of acquisition and socialisation. This discontinuity should be taken into account by models of language contact.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: This study investigated whether the studying abroad bilingual experience among unevenly balanced Chinese–English bilinguals exerted influence on cognitive control. Design/methodology/approach: We compared cognitive control differences between a group of Chinese–English bilinguals (n = 30) studying abroad in the USA and a control bilingual group (n = 30) studying at home in mainland China by administering the Flanker task and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). The two groups were matched on demographic variables including age, socioeconomic status (SES), intelligence, etc. Data and analysis: A mixed ANOVA was applied to the Flanker task data, with the task condition as the within-subject variable and the participant group as the between-subject variable. Independent t-test analyses were used to compare performance differences between groups on the WCST. Findings/conclusions: The two groups performed similarly on the Flanker task, whereas the group studying abroad fared better on the WCST, indicating better mental set shifting. Originality: This is the first study to show that the experience of studying abroad brings about cognitive control advantage in mental set shifting. Significance/implications: The current research provides the first evidence that the experience of studying abroad is related to the enhancement of cognitive control, which has implications for both cognitive development and international education.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Through use of a written questionnaire, this article examines the personal opinions of tertiary-level Japanese intermediate EFL students regarding the definition and process of becoming bilingual. Design/methodology/approach: This article takes a critical applied linguistic approach to examining the perspectives of emergent bilingual Japanese EFL learners regarding their own status as bilingual speakers in Japan. Data and analysis: This study employed a questionnaire involving both Likert and open perspective questions. The subsequent data analysis involved quantitative analysis of the Likert questions and qualitative analysis of the open-ended questions, according to emerging themes. Findings/conclusions: The results suggest that most of the Japanese emergent bilingual participants did not view themselves as being bilingual, and instead considered the notion of bilingualism to be an out-of-reach goal at their current level. This article suggests the need to educate foreign language (FL) learners of their emergent bilingual status so they may dismiss the idea of attaining native-like competence and embrace their status as competent emergent bilinguals. Originality: Whereas many studies examine (emergent) bilingualism from the perspective of minorities learning a majority language, this article has expanded upon the current body of bilingualism literature by investigating the perspectives of bilingualism from speakers of a majority language learning a minority language, as is the case in all FL education environments. Significance/implications: This article provides an insight into the issue of FL learners’ lack of recognition of their own emergent bilingualism. It brings attention to the need for FL teachers to inform students of their emergent bilingual status to leverage their bilingual languaging strategies so that they can make meaning, express themselves, and learn in their ever-increasing bilingual worlds.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The aim of this study is to investigate the sociolinguistic functions of code-switching and its relation to the meaning-making process by using the animated series Kim Possible as a case study. Design/methodology/approach: This study employs Muysken’s taxonomy to draw on code-switching patterns in lexico-grammar in relation to human behavior. The study also uses the functional approaches of Muysken and Appel and Gumperz as binary investigatory frameworks to locate interlingual and intralingual code-switching particularities and to elaborate on code-switching functions. Data and analysis: The analysis encompasses 48 episodes. Firstly, we extracted and transcribed code-switching occurrences in light of Muysken’s typology episode-by-episode and categorized them according to their code-switching type (interlingual or intralingual). Secondly, we quantified the occurrences according to their syntactic form to make more systematic claims about code-switching patterns. Next, we triangulated the patterns by examining the context of utterances and extralinguistic factors in the original series vis-à-vis the dubbed version to draw upon information beyond the structure or grammar. Findings/conclusions: The Arabic dubbed version was able to communicate the characters’ cosmopolitan diversity, which correlates with the series’ sense of linguistic modernity and humor. At the same time, the Arabic version was able to portray the extralinguistic reality of Lebanon and its multi-linguistic tapestry. Originality: This research is original because it focuses on Lebanese-Arabic, a dialect seldom discussed in the context of translation. The research also examines language variations in the context of dubbed discourse, where code-switching is integrally pertinent to visual-signs and the cultural background of characters. Significance/implications: The study recognizes the intricacy of code-switching as a reflective phenomenon of social reality and power dynamics; therefore, it contributes in the fields of translation and sociolinguistics.

The Theory of Integrative Nurse Coaching (TINC) has been analyzed according to the method of Walker and Avant. We have found that TINC is a well-constructed mid-range theory in the discipline of nursing. Within the domain of holistic nursing, it is focused on the goal of healing the whole person, synthesizing a large amount of theoretical material related to the concept of healing and placing it within the context of nursing as a discipline. With underpinnings in holistic nursing, it aligns with numerous grand nursing theories via the metaparadigm, healing, and patterns of knowing. It is easily translated into holistic nursing practice, actualized in the role of the nurse coach. It describes a method of holistic nursing practice that is suitable for use in numerous settings, including lifestyle, chronic disease, and end of life, among others. Although there is little published research using the theory, there is potential for application in holistic nursing practice, education, research, policy, and administration. We have identified numerous potential research questions that would test the theory. In this time of global nursing shortage and burnout, it is notable that this mid-range theory explicitly describes how self-care of the nurse enhances client care.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:This paper describes and analyses the speech from the Senegalese migrant community in the city of Pescara (Italy) from a contact-linguistics perspective. The focus is on the phenomena of code-mixing found when the Italian language, that of the host community, is added to the complex repertoire of Wolof/French multilingual speakers.Design/methodology/approach:The patterns of code-mixing and the composition of trilingual speech are presented and discussed following the Muysken grammatical model for classifying features of language-contact discourse.Data and analysis:Primary data have been collected recording spontaneous interactions among a group of first-generation migrants that have lived in Italy for about 10 years and are all speakers of a fluent learner-variety of Italian.Findings/conclusions:It will be shown that insertional and alternational code-mixing patterns are present in both the bilingual (French/Wolof) and the trilingual (Italian/French/Wolof) speech, but with different degrees of variation and distribution.Originality:Besides documenting the trilingual speech framed in a specific yet new migration contact setting, the author considers the role that the two languages of prestige, French and Italian, play within the structural composition of both types of code-mixing, especially with regards to their relationship with Wolof.Significance/implications:The results achieved contribute to the general theory of the grammatical model by reaffirming the properties of the patterns of insertion and alternation, but also by revealing other ambiguous forms of code-mixing that might suggest a future revision of the model.

Introduction: Both cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection and CMV disease have been linked with several long-term indirect effects in kidney transplant recipients. Research questions: We conducted a retrospective study to assess the association between cytomegalovirus disease and risks of death, shortterm cardiovascular events and graft loss in a cohort of renal transplant recipients. Design: The associations between CMV disease and death and cardiovascular events were determined using Cox regression models, while the association between viral disease and graft loss risk was analyzed through a competing risks regression according to the Fine and Gray method. Death with a functioning graft was considered as a competing risk event. Results: A total of 865 consecutive renal transplant recipients were included. The prevalence of seropositive donor/seronegative recipient (D+/R-) group was 89.9% with the remaining patients classified as seropositive recipient (R+). After median follow-up time of 24.4 months, CMV disease was not a risk factor for all-causes mortality (HR = 1.75; 95% CI 0.94-3.25), early cardiovascular events (HR = 0.54; 95% CI 0.16-1.82) or graft loss (subhazard ratio [the HR adjusted for competing risk of death with functioning graft] = 0.99; 95% CI 0.53-1.84). Conclusions: In this cohort with high prevalence of CMV IgG antibodies, we found no association between cytomegalovirus disease and risk of death or graft loss. The relationship between CMV and cardiovascular disease remains to be unraveled and probably corresponds to a multifactorial phenomenon involving individual risk factors and the immune response to infection rather than the virus effect itself.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Speech–language pathologists who speak more than one language and who are members of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association self-identify in one yes/no question whether they have the proficiency level to be bilingual service providers. This research note describes a preliminary attempt to address the very practical issue of whether and in what circumstances Spanish–English bilinguals can accurately judge their proficiency levels in both languages. The research question is: Will bilingual adults accurately identify their first language and second language proficiency levels using a self-assessment when compared to a commonly used standardized norm-referenced test (SNRT) in both formal and informal contexts across the following outcome measures: (a) overall proficiency; (b) listening; (c) speaking; (d) reading; and (e) writing? Design/methodology/approach: Classification accuracy studies require at least 34 participants. Thirty-nine participants completed the commonly used Language Use Questionnaire (LUQ) self-assessment and the commonly used Woodcock–Muñoz Language Survey SNRT (WMLS-III). For this pre-pilot study, participants were Spanish–English bilingual university students. Data and analysis: Forty likelihood ratios (LRs) were calculated. Benchmarks for interpreting LRs for classification accuracy studies were applied to identify the likelihood of an individual being proficient or non-proficient in two languages. Findings/conclusions: For the overall proficiency and formal speaking proficiency outcomes in Spanish, positive LRs met the benchmark for strong agreement. Originality: The current study is the first to show that Spanish–English bilingual adults can accurately judge their Spanish proficiency levels for two specific outcome measures. Significance/implications: These results are important for two reasons. First, they suggest that Spanish–English bilingual adults can accurately judge their overall proficiency levels in Spanish. Second, they identify which outcome measures from the LUQ and WMLS-III should be considered in a future classification accuracy study.

Aims and Research Questions: Codeswitching (CS) was investigated among English-Hebrew bilingual preschool children in a sentence repetition task focusing on switching at different points in prepositional phrases (PPs). We asked the extent to which sentence repetition accuracy differed (1) as a function of the switch site in the PP and (2) as a function of directionality, English-to-Hebrew versus Hebrew-to-English CS. Design/Methodology: English/first language (L1)-Hebrew/second language (L2), sequential bilingual children ( N = 65), ages 5;5–6;5, participated. Thirty-six English and 36 Hebrew stimulus sentences were matched for semantic content and syntax. English stimulus sentences contained switches to Hebrew; Hebrew stimuli contained switches to English. Six ‘switch’ conditions were examined: a single codeswitched noun (N), a determiner–noun switch (DET+N), a codeswitched preposition (P), a preposition–determiner switch (P+DET), a switch of the entire PP (P+DET+N), and a no-switch condition. Data and Analysis: Audio recordings were transcribed and coded. Full sentence repetition was coded as correct/incorrect. The number of errors and the proportion of CS errors were computed. A 6 × 2 repeated-measures analysis of variance examined the effects of switch site within the PP and directionality (L1-to-L2 versus L2-to-L1). Findings/Conclusions: Accuracy was highest for the non-switched, N, and P+DET+N conditions. Accuracy was lowest for DET+N switches in English sentences, and for P switches in Hebrew sentences, and these two conditions showed the highest proportion of CS errors. The findings show evidence for a hierarchy of processing costs and directionality differences, which are interpreted in terms of contrastive typological features, particularly definiteness marking in the two languages, English by a free morpheme, and Hebrew by a bound clitic.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The topic of cross-linguistic influence regarding the overt or null expression of arguments has been frequently considered regarding bilinguals acquiring language pairs in which the null option is licensed by one and not both of the two languages. The goal of this study is to investigate whether simultaneous and sequential bilinguals differ from monolinguals in the case of the acquisition of Polish and German; that is, languages which both license null subjects and null objects, but in which the nature of the null arguments clearly differs. We focus on the acquisition of null arguments as silent but syntactically active bundles of features. Design/methodology/approach: We compare the use of null subjects and null objects by 72 bilingual and 45 monolingual children in experimental setting: acceptability judgement and sentence repetition. Data and analysis: The distribution of null arguments in production and judgement data of simultaneous and early sequential bilinguals was compared to the data of monolinguals. Findings/conclusions: The study has revealed that early sequential Polish-German bilinguals avoid null subjects in L2 German at an advanced stage of acquisition, even though null subjects are quite frequent in their L1. The slower acquisition of null subjects in early L2 German in comparison to null objects in the case of Polish-German bilinguals demonstrates that the dissimilarity between the null subjects in both languages may lead to the delay effect in the acquisition. The findings suggest that the cross-linguistic influence is due to the increased complexity inherent to the integration of syntactic and pragmatic information in case of null arguments. Originality: Unlike previous studies, we focus on the acquisition of null arguments in a language pair, Polish and German, in which the null option is licensed by both grammars, and in which the nature of the null arguments clearly differ.

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: The purpose of the study is to figure out what factors condition the phenomenon of preposition drop (P-drop) in locative, directional and temporal phrases. Specifically, we investigate what kind of phrases allow P-drop in Russian spoken in Highland Daghestan and aim at understanding the rationale for this phenomenon. Design/Methodology/Approach: We conduct a quantitative analysis of data extracted from the Corpus of Russian spoken in Daghestan, which includes interviews with 53 native speakers of 15 Daghestanian and Turkic languages, amounting to 228 thousand tokens. Data and Analysis: Data from 47 (29 male; 18 female) consultants speaking Russian as a second language (L2) who produced a sufficient number of prepositional phrases (PPs) were included in the analysis. 50 PPs were collected from each speaker, resulting in a data set of 2350 PPs. Each PP was annotated for P-drop and several sociolinguistic and linguistic parameters. We fitted a logistic mixed-effects regression model to determine which parameters are significant predictors of P-drop. Findings/Conclusions: We show that the probability of P-drop depends on preposition type, phonetic context and the speaker’s fluency in Russian. We propose that the prominence of P-drop in the speech of Daghestanian highlanders results from an interplay of two factors: a typological tendency for certain spatial and temporal locations to be formally unmarked, and incomplete acquisition of the Russian prepositional system. Originality: This is the first detailed quantitative study of P-drop based on an inferential statistical analysis of data from a large number of L2 Russian speakers from Daghestan. Significance/Implications: The results show that the apparently contact-induced phenomena such as P-drop may be explained both by typological tendencies and incomplete acquisition of L2. This paper is thus important both for the typological study of this phenomenon and for L2 acquisition research.

I surveyed inservice instrumental music educators ( N = 96) to determine their comfort level for teaching and performing on secondary band instruments. Research questions included the following: (a) How comfortable do inservice music educators feel teaching and performing on secondary instruments? (b) Does grade level affect educators’ comfort levels? (c) Does the educators’ primary instrument family relate to their perceived comfort level for teaching and playing on secondary instruments? and (d) Does the format of instrument classes during preparation programs influence educators’ comfort for teaching and playing secondary instruments? Participants reported moderate comfort on most instruments, with brass being most comfortable. Participants indicating woodwind as a primary instrument reported an overall higher comfort level for teaching and performing on brass instruments, whereas low comfort levels on double reeds. High school educators felt least comfortable teaching and performing on secondary instruments. Participants who took Split-Families and Semester-Families preservice classes felt more comfortable performing on secondary instruments versus those who took Individual-Instrument courses.

The study investigated the extent of existence of digital divide between music teachers and students in selected secondary schools in Anambra state. Two objectives and two research questions guided the study using mixed-research design. Three education zones consisting of nine public secondary schools, 18 music teachers and 270 music students formed the sample for the study. Structured questionnaires and oral interview were developed for teachers and students and used for collecting data from the field. The data gathered were presented quantitatively and qualitatively. The reliability indices were .71 and .70 for teachers and students, respectively. Mean and standard deviation and t test were the statistical tools used in the analysis of the work. The findings revealed high extent of digital divide based on the responses of music teachers and students on the place of information and communications technology (ICT) in operative curriculum. There was low extent of digital disparity in ICT knowledge on the teachers’ part and high extent on the students’ part. The recommendations were as follows: the present music curriculum should be restructured to integrate ICT in order to meet the needs of 21st-century music education, and music teachers should be trained to have the wherewithal in ICT applications for bridging the digital disparities.

Empirical aesthetics is associated with two research questions: How the mind generally assigns value to sensory stimuli and how it responds specifically to art objects. Researchers have debated whether these phenomena share enough to warrant being collapsed into a single field. To ask how these particular questions came to be associated with aesthetics, we conducted Google Ngram analyses over a corpus of books spanning two centuries. Analyses trace the frequency of “big questions” about art and beauty, and how the term aesthetic appears relative to other concepts. Results indicate the 19th century was dominated by notions of beauty and an aesthetic sense. Questions about art and aesthetic experience become more frequent during the 20th century. Results are interpreted with respect to associated affective and evaluative concepts, art movements, and scientific debates. Understanding how aesthetics is used over time can cast light on the ways current work is being conceived and pursued.

This study investigated the intervention of TETFund in the provision of library resources in academic libraries in Imo State, Nigeria. It was guided by four research questions and three null hypotheses. The study adopted a survey research design with a questionnaire as the research instrument. The population of the study was 105 professional and para-professional library staff at two universities in Imo State. The findings show that TETFund intervenes to a high extent in the provision of information resources at the two universities studied. The study recommends that concerned government ministries should monitor the activities of TETFund to ensure that universities benefit equally, and that TETFund should be mandated to make the processes simpler. The researchers also recommend that TETFund organize conferences to educate institutions on the need and processes to access funding and benefit from TETFund.

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) is a universal framework used to classify human functioning in clinical and rehabilitative domains. The objective of this study was to examine the utility of the ICF as a framework to categorize and measure barriers to public transportation reported by older adults. ICF coding techniques were applied to sixty paratransit applications for analyzing user-reported barriers to public transportation. Paratransit users were divided into groups based on age (young old vs. oldest old) and ambulatory level (non- vs. ambulatory). Analysis identified 119 instances of user- reported environmental barriers ranging from technology requirements to system/service-based factors, though the prevalence of different barriers differed across groups. Overall, the methodology appears promising. Understanding the complex relationships between functioning and different transportation barriers experienced by specific sub-populations could help identify unmet transportation needs, generate precise research questions, and support the development of inclusive transportation technologies and systems.

Research Questions: Does being in the social welfare slow-onset disaster quadrant help in garnering resources during the sudden disaster? Theory: Humanitarian supply chain has been traditionally explained as a system involved in mobilizing people, resources, skills and knowledge for disaster relief operations. The established classification of disasters includes natural and man-made disasters. These are further classified into sudden- and slow-onset disasters. Social welfare supply chains happen to be a distinctive type of humanitarian supply chain working in slow-onset disasters such as poverty and drought. To understand the complex systems like humanitarian supply chain, system dynamics modelling is used. Type of the Case: Study of a phenomenon. Basis of the Case: In this study, we proposed a humanitarian supply chain case and system dynamics model that works as a social welfare supply chain. In the face of a calamity, operations are ramped up for the sudden-onset conditions. After the initial phase is over, operations are ramped down and again become stable. Protagonist: Absent. Findings: The study tests the results of four policy measures (a) increasing goodwill, (b) decreasing stringent directive, (c) increasing donor attitude and (d) a combination of all of these measures. These measures are additive in nature, and a humanitarian supply chain can use these policy measures to respond to a sudden disaster. Discussions: The case discusses various policy measures taken by the humanitarian supply chain during a sudden disaster. It also explores whether being in the slow-onset quadrant helps tack sudden disasters like earthquakes or terrorist attacks. An organization can start with decreasing the stringent measures in the case of a sudden disaster. Increasing donor attitude and goodwill requires long-term outreach efforts.

Research seeking to understand and improve social conditions for marginalized youth would benefit from merging complex mixed methods research designs emphasizing multilevel data and participatory social justice principles. We contribute to mixed methods research by introducing a novel framework that accomplishes this task and by illustrating its real-world application via PhotoStories, a multistage study aimed at understanding youths’ community-based experiences and emotional well-being. During the project’s three phases (preparation, training, and dissemination) we obtained and integrated quantitative and qualitative data at multiple ecological levels. Additionally, we examined youth perceptions about their participation, an important outcome given our focus on participatory social justice. We also provide lessons learned and recommendations for investigators seeking to use a similar approach for youth-focused research.

One of the most common technology-enhanced items used in large-scale K-12 testing programs is the drag-and-drop response interaction. The main research questions in this study are: (a) Does adding a drag-and-drop interface to an online test affect the accuracy of student performance? (b) Does adding a drag-and-drop interface to an online test affect the speed of student performance? In three different experiments involving fourth, sixth, and eighth graders, respectively; students answered reading comprehension questions presented in conventional (i.e., paper-based design) or drag-and-drop formats. The tests consisted of four-sentence ordering items in Experiment 1, four graphic organizer items in Experiment 2, and two cloze tests and two graphic organizer items in Experiment 3. The conventional and drag & drop groups were compared on test performance (i.e., accuracy) and efficiency (i.e., response time and number of mouse clicks). Across the three experiments, the conventional and drag & drop groups did not differ in mean performance, but the drag & drop group responded more efficiently than the conventional group (faster response time, d = 0.62, and fewer mouse clicks, d = 1.13).

Research questions:The aim of this study is to explore and conceptualize responsible leadership. The topic is viewed from the viewpoint of the dyadic level between managers and employees. The following research questions are answered: What principles do managers and employees perceive as being significant for responsible leadership in the manager–employee relationship? What social contexts in the relationship call for the principles to occur? To whom do the parties place responsibility for the advancement of the principles?Theory:The study draws on relational leadership theory as well as literature on responsible leadership. Responsible leadership is understood as a dynamic and contextual process of social construction through relationships between managers and employees rooted in principles, which guide the parties’ actions.Type of the case:An explorative case study strategy was adopted. Two executive MBA groups are the cases through which the research phenomenon, responsible leadership, is explored. The data consists of a sample of 22 participants in the groups. Content analysis was used to analyse the data.Basis of the case:The participants in the executive MBA groups offer real-life data from which the results can be built. The participants represent professionals who have a broad and versatile perspective to leadership issues from the viewpoint of employee and manager. In general, an executive MBA programme advances its participants’ competency to reflect and analyse leadership topics.Findings:Conceptualization that shows the principles of responsibility in leadership—fairness, empowerment, openness, trust and caring—and their contextual and dynamic nature in the manager–employee relationship was formed.Discussions:This case study implies that exercising responsible leadership is produced differently in different social contexts: in some contexts the manager is expected to take the lead and be in charge, while at other times it is expected that practising responsible leadership principles will be shared between partners. A limitation is that this study explored its topic only at the dyadic level between manager and employee.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: This study examined whether school-aged second-generation heritage speakers exhibit knowledge of the semantic and pragmatic constraints on Spanish copula selection with adjectives, and whether experiential factors affect copula interpretation. Design/methodology/approach: Following a between-subjects design, we administered 2 Picture Selection Tasks to 50 second-generation bilingual children (ages 5;1–14;10) and 21 first-generation adults living in the same community in central Texas. Task 1 included real adjectives and Task 2 novel adjectives. We administered a morphosyntactic proficiency test in English and Spanish (BESA/BESA-ME) to the children and obtained language exposure and use data. Data and analysis: Using generalized linear mixed models, analyses compared bilingual children to first-generation adults in their selection of the temporary picture with each copula ( ser vs. estar), and also examined the role of age, language exposure/use, and morphosyntactic proficiency. Findings/conclusions: Only children with high Spanish morphosyntactic proficiency approached adult-like sensitivity to the semantic and pragmatic distinctions between ser and estar with adjectives. Age, Spanish exposure and use, and English proficiency did not significantly influence performance on the tasks. Originality: This study provides the first detailed examination of the acquisition of copula selection with adjectives in Spanish-English school-aged heritage speakers living in the US. Significance/implications: This study offers evidence of the vulnerability of aspect, as instantiated in Spanish copula selection, among school-aged bilingual children. It also suggests low-proficiency children might be a catalyzing locus of the accelerated changes in copula use.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:The main goal of this paper is to analyse how social factors determine the degree of occurrence of intonational features of Basque in Spanish in the Basque Country (i.e. Basque Spanish).Design/methodology/approach:We concentrate on information-seeking yes/no questions. In Castilian Spanish, these end in a rising contour, whereas in Basque they end in a rising–falling contour. The data were gathered through sociolinguistic interviews with 12 speakers of Basque Spanish with different linguistic profiles: monolingual Spanish; first language Spanish–second language Basque; and L1 Basque–L2 Spanish.Data and analysis:172 information-seeking yes/no interrogatives were obtained from conversational speech. Their final intonational contours were annotated in the Spanish Tone and Break Index model of intonational analysis.Findings/conclusions:79% of all information-seeking yes/no questions had final configurations with a rising–falling circumflex contour. Only 21% had the final rising contour of Castilian Spanish. Speakers differed in their frequency of occurrence of falling contours, but the differences did not correlate with the speakers’ linguistic profile (monolingual vs bilingual). Rather, higher percentages of yes/no questions ending in a falling contour were found among speakers who had (a) a higher degree of contact with the Basque ethnolinguistic group, and (b) more positive attitudes towards the Basque language and the Basque ethnolinguistic group.Originality:Methodologically, this study is original because the intonational analysis is carried out on natural speech rather than on read or elicited speech. This study is also original from a theoretical point of view because it is the first one to underline the role that subjective factors such as linguistic attitudes play in the adoption of features of a language variety from another contact variety.Significance/implications:Our research opens up a path to continue investigating the weight of subjective social factors such as linguistic attitudes in explaining the variation in the influence of one language variety over another.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Language-switch costs, which denote worse performance in language-switch than in language-repetition trials, appear to be a robust finding in bilingual language switching. The aim of the present study was to examine the intraindividual reliability of language-switch costs by means of a number-naming task with German-English bilinguals. Design/methodology/approach: In a cued language-switching paradigm, participants ( n = 36) switched between German and English. They performed a number-naming task in three different conditions: one-digit numbers; two-digit numbers with decade 10; and two-digit numbers with decade 20. Data and analysis: We examined the experimental effects with an analysis of variance (reaction time and error rate as the dependent variables), using trial language, language sequence and number condition as independent variables. In addition, we calculated the split-half reliability of language-switch costs (across all conditions) as well as the correlations of language-switch costs between the different conditions. Findings/conclusions: While significant language-switch costs emerged in all three number conditions, our results demonstrate a medium-sized correlation between the three experimental conditions. The split-half reliability shows a moderate to strong correlation between the odd- and even-numbered trials in the experiment. Originality: On the one hand, the present study extends the observation of language-switch costs from one-digit number naming to the more complex naming of two-digit numbers. On the other hand, and theoretically even more important, we explored the reliability of language-switch costs in a bilingual number-naming task by calculating both split-half reliability and correlations between different number conditions. Significance/implications: The results indicated that while language-switch costs are a robust experimental effect on the group level, they appear to be less well suited for correlational approaches. This also suggests that caution should be exerted when language-switch costs are used to diagnose the ability of an individual to perform language control.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: This study examines prosodic contrastive focus marking in the Spanish of 24 simultaneous K’ichee’-Spanish bilinguals via the following research questions: (1) How do K’ichee’-Spanish bilinguals prosodically mark contrastive focus in Spanish? (2) Is there evidence of K’ichee’ influence in Spanish prosody and is this possible K’ichee’ influence correlated with the language dominance of the bilinguals? Design/methodology/approach: Participants produced utterances in both broad and contrastive focus conditions via a question-answer task. Data and analysis: Tonic syllables of 1638 target words were analyzed according to L- and H-tone alignment and the rise of the pitch contour. Data were analyzed via linear mixed-effects models according to pragmatic condition (categorical effect) and language dominance (continuous effect). Findings/conclusions: Results indicate gradient effects of language dominance of possible K’ichee’ influence. Spanish-dominant bilinguals tend to prosodically mark contrastive focus to a greater degree than K’ichee’-dominant bilinguals. It is proposed that this may be due to the different focus marking strategies between K’ichee’ and Spanish. K’ichee’ primarily marks contrastive focus syntactically whereas it is much more common in Spanish to only mark contrastive focus prosodically. Originality: This study employs a modified version of the question-answer task, which uses video clips to elicit the data in order to include participants with low literacy rates and control the elicitations. It also provides one of the first analyses of intonation in Guatemalan Spanish and the task and data allow for direct comparisons with the K’ichee’ data produced by these same bilinguals. Significance/implications: These results parallel those of similar studies: among bilinguals, the syntactic contrastive focus marking strategy of one language may affect the prosodic contrastive focus marking strategy of their other language. Additionally, the use of language dominance as a continuous variable expands our understanding of inter-speaker variation in such studies.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:This article examines the classifier effect on categorization among advanced Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners. More specifically, it aims to answer this question: Is non-classifier language speakers’ categorization of objects influenced by the acquisition of the Chinese classifier system?Design/methodology/approach, data and analysis:Native Chinese speakers, advanced CSL learners and non-CSL participants were asked to rate the relatedness of drawing pairs based on either classifier or taxonomy/theme; advanced CSL learners and non-CSL participants were then asked to immediately recall two lists of nouns, one associated with three taxonomic categories and the other with three classifiers. Repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the major effect between drawing relations (classifier related, taxonomically/thematically related and unrelated) and participant groups. Two measures of NCR (number of correct recall) and RR (ratio of repetition) were calculated and analysed to examine effective memory retrieval as well as subjective clustering.Findings/conclusions:Results showed that preferences for classifier-based and taxonomy/theme -based categorizations differed between advanced CSL learners and non-CSL participants. CSL learners’ knowledge of the classifier system also facilitated their performance in recalling and clustering objects. The findings revealed that concepts in bilingual minds may be language-specific and an alternative interpretation of the real world is internalized by learning a new language.Originality:Unlike previous studies, this article extended the examination of the cognitive consequences of classifiers to late bilinguals whose second language (L2) proficiency was formally assessed.Significance/implications:This study contributes empirical data supporting the importance of nonverbal behavioural evidence in the study of bilingual cognition. The degree and nature of the restructuring of real-world referents as a consequence of acquiring Chinese classifiers is of pedagogical value to second-language acquisition (SLA).

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:The article focuses on language experiences shared by female expatriates and aims to investigate the circumstances which are related to their language acquisition and communication in the couple. The research question concerns the degree of socialization of these women into the Polish language as adult bilinguals via marriages to Poles.Design/methodology/approach:Based on my recent data from in-depth interviews, analyzed by means of qualitative methodology, I concentrate on the sociolinguistic complexity of bilingual couples in Poland.Data and analysis:I analyze excerpts of interviews produced by eight couples of immigrant women who settled down in Poland to live with Poles. I investigate these women’s talk with regard to their subjective evaluations of language repertoires resulting from their individual histories of L2 acquisition and their language ideologies reflected in communication patterns with their Polish husbands.Findings/conclusions:My data suggest that language competence relates to the communication quality in cross-lingual and intercultural couples, as subjectively assessed by the target women. I found evidence for apparent reshuffles in language repertoires, an appreciation for formal language learning and the specific hierarchy of priorities in private communication. The results reveal language attitudes which affect the dyadic communication and the sense of ethnicity among mixed couples.Originality:The article views multilingualism and immigration from a new perspective by giving the voice to women living in bilingual couples. The novelty relies on the less studied Polish context where immigrant women from different ethnic backgrounds share language experiences and life situations.Significance/implications:This is significant because the qualitative investigation of the socialization process through language helps understand and interpret linguistic phenomena in terms of the meanings brought to intercultural relationships.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Language brokering (LB) is an informal translation experience where bilinguals serve as linguistic and cultural intermediaries for family members. LB may have long-term socio-emotional and cognitive outcomes, yet little is known about its effects on executive functions (EFs). This study examines how first language (L1) proficiency and negative emotions tied to language brokering experiences affect EF performance on a Simon task (ST). Design/methodology/approach: Fifty-three Mexican American Spanish–English bilinguals with LB experience performed a ST, and reported their feelings towards LB for their mother. Data and analysis: Mean reaction times (RTs) and accuracy rates for correct ST trials were analyzed using linear mixed effects modeling, with trial type, proficiency and negative emotions tied to LB experience as factors and their interactions as additional predictors. Findings/conclusions: The L1 proficiency and negative emotions tied to brokering experiences have divergent, but combined effects on EF. Contrary to our hypotheses, low L1 proficiency predicted better performance and the smallest Simon effect was found for brokers with low L1 proficiency and low negative emotional brokering experiences. However, high L1 proficiency predicted better performance (smallest RTs) regardless of negative emotions tied to brokering experiences. Originality: This study takes a different perspective on the examination of individual differences among bilinguals, in which we examine how negative emotions tied to brokering experiences coupled with L1 proficiency relates to EF performance. Significance/implications: Our results provide support for the need to understand how individual differences in bilingual language experiences, such as L1 proficiency and negative emotions tied to LB, interact with performance on the ST.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: The current study examined the language-reading relationship for bilingual students in two grade levels (grades 1 and 3) and for two reading outcomes (decoding and comprehension) to understand the contribution of oral language in English reading. The study also explored the potential mediating role of oral language between language use, reading frequency, and reading outcomes. Design/methodology/approach: The study included 60 bilingual students from bilingual households that speak a language other than, or in addition to, English. All participants completed a battery of language and reading assessments and a background survey. Data and analysis: Three separate confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to derive an Oral Language factor (from oral language assessments), a Language Use factor, and a Reading Frequency factor (from survey items). A multivariate regression was conducted to investigate whether the language-reading relationship differed by grade and reading outcome. A multivariate mediation analysis was also conducted to examine whether the Oral Language factor mediates the effect of Language Use and Reading Frequency on reading outcomes. Findings/conclusions: Oral language proficiency significantly predicted both decoding and comprehension for both grades. Oral language also mediated the relationship between reading frequency and reading outcomes. Originality: This study investigates the contributions of oral language in young bilingual students’ English reading outcomes, which is an under-explored topic. Significance/implications: The results demonstrated the importance of oral language proficiency in bilingual students’ reading outcomes. Oral language plays a robust role in not only reading comprehension but also decoding. The study also clarified that the effects of reading frequency on reading outcomes are indirect and mediated via oral language. Improving bilingual students’ oral language proficiency coupled with promoting their reading frequency can help promote their reading outcomes.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:This study examines the characteristics of the child heritage language during the period of its relative dominance in early sequential bilinguals. Our objectives are twofold: to compare lexical accuracy and access in heritage and monolingual speakers across the primary school years, and to examine whether the results point to any early shifts in the heritage language strength.Design/methodology/approach:The participants are 38 Polish–English early sequential bilinguals and 24 Polish monolinguals aged 4;7–13;2, divided into four age groups. We use a new psycholinguistic tool, the Child HALA, to measure shifts in language strength by comparing lexical accuracy and access between the heritage and monolingual Polish. This picture-naming test is based on the HALA tool.Data and analysis:The data consists of accuracy and response time scores. The results are compared between the age groups and between the heritage and monolingual speakers to document any changes as a function of age and type of acquisition.Findings/conclusions:The heritage speakers achieve similar accuracy scores as the monolinguals; however, their rate of acquisition is slower. Their response time scores are lower across all age spans, which points to a slower language access. The results may suggest that the heritage language displays early shifts in its strength before a switch to a more dominant L2 between the mean age of 8–11;5.Originality:We document early changes in the heritage language strength that occur during a period of its relative dominance in bilingual children. The study employs a new psycholinguistic test applicable in the assessments of language maintenance in children.Significance/implications:The study provides insights into the heritage language maintenance during the early years of exposure to the majority language. The results may offer a greater understanding of the characteristics of the heritage language development in bilingual children.

The purpose of this study was to examine the life and work of Frank William Westhoff (1863–1938), a leader in music education during the progressive era (circa 1890s–1950s). Research questions focused on his work as a music supervisor, teacher educator, pedagogue, and textbook author. I also explored Westhoff’s contributions to the profession and influence on music education. Westhoff was born in St. Charles County, Missouri, in 1863. He moved to Decatur, Illinois, in 1884, and in 1893 he began supervising music in the city’s public schools. From 1901 to 1935, Westhoff served as music instructor at ISNU, where he taught methods classes, directed ensembles, and supervised music in the local public schools. He died in Normal, Illinois, in 1938. Although Westhoff was not as prominent a figure in music education as those who led the field on a national level during his time, he played an important role in sustaining, perpetuating, and expanding school music on a regional basis throughout much of the progressive era. He was a founding member of Music Supervisors’ National Conference at Keokuk, Iowa, in 1907, and published numerous compositions and didactic materials, including a statewide curriculum that helped standardize music instruction in Illinois.

This article explores intertextuality, research questions, and arguments scientists use to articulate the legitimacy of geoengineering practices as “good science.” I employ critical discourse analysis to draw out patterns in articles from an invited special forum about the validity of geoengineering technology as a solution to climate change. Articulation theory guides my study of how scientists define what counts as “good science” by analyzing how geoengineering scientists legitimize their research as methodologically strong and beneficial to society. This project serves as a first step in clarifying how scientific debate influences broader circles and the potential social impacts of these debates.

The purpose of this study was to understand the social networks of three instrumental music teachers in a midwestern school district. Research questions were (1) How do instrumental music teachers describe their formal/instructional networks? and (2) How do instrumental music teachers’ social networks differ by career stage? I used a qualitative ego network design to map social networks of information sharing with a focus on the flow of social capital. Data sources included a name-generating questionnaire to construct networks and two semistructured interviews focusing on the nature and significance of teachers’ ties. Findings suggest that social networks showed particularities in terms of number of ties and tie strength. On matters of instruction, participants sought out music teachers whom they respected or who possessed specialized knowledge. Participants spoke of the importance of forging micropolitical ties to secure needs related to resources and scheduling, using ties strategically. Finally, participants felt that networks differed by career stage with advice seeking decreasing over time and networks becoming more close-knit. Implications are offered for music teachers and music teacher educators.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:The aim of the study is to contribute to the debate about a possible contact-induced change in the heritage language and to examine whether there is contact-induced language change at the morpho-syntactic level in Turkish spoken in Germany. We focus on the perception and use of the converbs –Ip and –IncA in heritage Turkish.Design/methodology/approach:The perception and production of the converbs –Ip and –IncA by 30 German–Turkish bilinguals, who were born and have resided in Germany, are compared with those of the control group.Data and analysis:Two tasks are used in the study: a grammaticality judgement task and a picture-story description task. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are utilized.Findings/conclusions:The analysis of the perception of the converbs by the participants revealed that the bilinguals’ perception of the grammatical constructions with –IncA and of the ungrammatical constructions with –Ip and –IncA differed significantly from that of the monolinguals; however, the perception of the grammatical constructions with –Ip was found to be similar between the bilingual and monolingual groups. The analysis of the production of the converbs by the bilingual participants showed that they tended to use the converbs significantly less than the monolingual control group did. The qualitative analysis of the production task also revealed that there were several cases in the use of the converbs that could be considered as ungrammatical and/or unconventional.

This article seeks to complicate notions that research methods in journalism and media communication should necessarily be preceded or driven by research questions, suggesting that researchers who prioritize methods that bring them joy might discover questions they wouldn’t otherwise know to ask. The article first explores methodology as a lifestyle choice through the framework of non-representational theory. It then examines literature on postcoding, which suggests that the coding practices found in much qualitative social science are unnecessary holdovers of positivism. The essay shows how spontaneously freestyle, open-ended postcoding analysis enabled the author to discover and intra-act with data in newly rich and authentic ways. Finally, the article examines how this style of research fits with the normative commitments of the discipline of journalism studies.

This study poses the following research questions: What is the prevalence of bullying in vocational schools in China? What are the differences between different genders and professions? How should individuals, families, and schools do to affect school bullying? What can we do to improve and to respond school bullying, to reduce its occurrence and consequences? This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2018 with 95,873 students from 85 vocational schools. The main outcome indicators were self-reported involvement in bullying (perpetrator, victim, perpetrator-victim, or uninvolved). Multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted, with personal characteristics, relational characteristics, and school climate as predictors. A total of 30.4% of participants reported being bullied, 2.9% reported bullying others, and 21.7% reported being bullied and bullying others. Majors related to primary and secondary industries are more likely to involvement in bullying than majors related to tertiary industries. Boys were more involved in physical or verbal bullying, whereas girls were more involved in relational bullying and cyberbullying. Sex, history of fighting, and emotional/mental state were the strongest individual factors associated with bullying. Having friends was inversely associated with bullying involvement; moreover, a positive relationship with parents and a good parenting style (warmth, democracy, and mutual concern) protected students from bullying others as well as being bullied. School bullying programs, happiness at school, and insecurity at school were strong negative predictors of bullying. Bullying is prevalent among vocational school students in China. An appropriate response to school bullying requires strengthening student capacity to correctly understand and deal with bullying, identifying victims and vulnerable groups, developing school-based interventions, involving parents in prevention programs, and enhancing students’ sense of responsibility in supervision, reporting, and creating a friendly environment.