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Grounded in dynamic network theory, this study examined network goal analysis (NGA) to understand complex systems. NGA provides new insights by inserting goal nodes into social networks. Goal nodes can also represent missions, objectives, or desires, thus having wide applicability. The theory ties social networks to goal nodes through a parsimonious set of social network role linkages, such as independent goal striving, system supporting, feedback, goal preventing, supportive resisting, and system negating (i.e., those who are upset with others in the pursuit). Moreover, we extend the theory’s system reactance role linkage to better account for constructive conflicts. Two complex systems were examined: a team’s mission and an individual’s work project. In support of dynamic network theory, using the Quadratic Assignment Procedure, results demonstrated significant shared goal striving, system supporting, and shared connections between goal striving and system supporting. These findings manifest what we coin as multipendence: Systems having some actions independently involved with goals, while others are dependently involved in the associated network. NGA also demonstrated that the goal nodes manifested strong betweenness centrality, indicating that goal striving and feedback links were connecting entities across the wider system. Strategies to plan network goal interventions are illustrated with implications for practice.

In the context of business and management, action research operates in the realm of strategies, practical tasks, and structured hierarchical organizational systems in diverse industries and across multiple business functions and disciplines. This article reflects on action research in generating actionable knowledge in this particular domain and shares the authors’ perspective on future developments. The reflection explores a small number of action research studies undertaken across multiple fields and disciplines in business and management and advances distinct common denominators that can guide further research and action and aid future reflection. Through the mode of interiority, readers are invited to engage in a similar reflection on their assumptions, questions, and insights in coming to judgement about the state of the field and its future.

The Communist Party of China (CPC) transplanted the democratic centralism of the Soviet Union’s Communist (Bolshevik) Party as its own organizational system in its founding days. This system underwent difficult adjustments during the process of the Chinese revolution. After the meeting on 7 August 1927, the CPC started organizing rebellions in rural areas, which presented severe challenges to its organizational principles and capabilities. The particular circumstances of armed rebellion complicated the relationship between the local party members who organized the rebellion and the upper levels of the party, as well as the relationship between the local party leader and the party system. The Jiangxi Wan’an rebellion was one of the rebellions organized by the CPC after the 7 August meeting. Zeng Tianyu, head of the Wan’an rebellion, represents a certain type of local leader of the early CPC. Moreover, the conflicts in the CPC organizational system exposed in the organizing of the Wan’an rebellion were also typical during the period of the Agrarian Revolutionary War. Employing documents, data of organizations, memoirs, gazetteers, and journals in the fields of CPC history, social history, and the history of the Republic of China, this article investigates Zeng Tianyu’s life history and ethos, the background and process of the Wan’an rebellion, and the effort and failure of the upper level of the party in its attempts to strengthen the CPC organization in Wan’an. This article uncovers three kinds of tension in the organization of the early CPC: (1) tension between the officials’ authority and personal factors, (2) tension between the effectiveness of the organizational discipline and the autonomy of local leaders, and (3) tension between the organizing of the revolution and the traditional resources and local interests. These tensions can also explain a series of the CPC’s organizational events that happened during the same period.

Most scholarship in modern organization theory maintains a near-exclusive focus on private-sector settings. In contrast, this article argues that complex public-sector organizational systems – such as the European Union (EU) – can provide a very relevant laboratory to both fine-tune organization theoretical propositions and test them empirically. I first draw attention to the value-added of organization theory for the study of EU institutions. Then, I turn to these institutions’ capacity to present a springboard for theoretical development in organization theory, and bring forward a number of avenues for further research on the intersection of EU studies and organization theory that can push forward both research fields.

We explore existing perspectives of organizational alignment and employee engagement from the literature to better understand the alignment-engagement linkages to individual performance. This is an underexplored area of inquiry in human resource development (HRD). Our analysis of the alignment and engagement literatures resulted in the development of an exploratory conceptual model. The conceptual model elaborates on the organizational alignment–employee engagement linkages and their impact on individual performance. These interconnections emphasize the importance of developing internally consistent HRD interventions or programs that align individual skills and knowledge with job characteristics and organizational systems and routines. Furthermore, the model highlights the dynamic nature of the alignment-engagement linkages both as a source and context which facilitates individual performance, and influences the extent to which employees exhibit essential as well as discretionary behaviors. We elaborate on the implications for HRD theory, research, and practice.

In this essay, we examine how aesthetic knowledge defines design thinking and also poses a challenge for many organizational systems. Design thinking is one problem-solving approach that addresses problems where multiple and conflicting interests must be met by perceiving the holistic quality of the interconnections across such interests. However, there has not been a clear declaration of what is at the core of design thinking. The direct engagement of the bodily senses in design-thinking methods points to the importance of aesthetic knowledge for problem definition and solution generation. Organizational systems, however, often occlude the role of the body at work, and therefore of aesthetic knowledge. Drawing on structurationist theory, we make suggestions for how organizational systems might adapt to more effectively generate and use aesthetic knowledge and tackle increasingly complex problems.

The SNARC effect refers to faster reaction times for larger numbers with right-sided responses and for smaller numbers with left-sided responses, even when numerical magnitude is irrelevant. Although the SNARC is generally thought to reflect a mapping between numbers and space, the question of which spatial reference frame(s) are critical for the effect has not been systematically explored. We propose a dynamic hierarchical organization of the reference frames (from a global left–right frame to body- and object-related frames), where the influence of each frame can be modulated by experimental context. We conducted two experiments based on predictions derived from this organizational system. Experiment 1 compared instructions that differed only in focusing participants’ attention on either the response buttons or the hands. Instructions focusing on a hand-based reference frame eliminated the SNARC. Experiment 2 provided the opportunity for an object-centred reference frame to manifest itself in the SNARC. Although we did not observe an effect of an object-centred reference frame, we observed the influence of other reference frames in a context where an object-centred reference frame was emphasized. Altogether, these results support the proposed organization of the reference frames.

Organizational success increasingly depends on leaders’ abilities to address competing demands simultaneously. Scholars have applied both institutional theory and paradox theory to better understand the nature and responses to these competing demands. These two lenses diverge in their understanding and responses to tensions. Institutional theory depicts competing demands emerging from divergent field-level pressures and stresses their contradictory and oppositional nature. Organizational responses vary from making tradeoffs and choosing pressures with which to conform to seeking strategies for engaging both and managing conflict. Paradox theory locates competing demands as inherent with organizational systems, surfaced through environmental conditions, individual sensemaking, or relational dialogue. According to these scholars, paradoxes are contradictory, interdependent, and persist over time, demanding strategies for engaging and accommodating tensions but not resolving them. In this essay, we highlight these distinctions and argue that drawing from both of these lenses will results in rich, generative theorizing to better address key challenges in the world. We identify specific areas where future research can benefit from such integration.

A discussion of the locus of design knowledge is currently underway as well as a search for clear boundaries defined by a formal Body of Knowledge (BoK). Most attempts to define a BoK involve the creation of “jurisdictional boundaries of knowledge” that “allow those who possess this knowledge to claim authority over its application” ( Guerin & Thompson, 2004 , p. 1). This claim is attractive but such control may no longer be an option in the Internet Age, when even the call for the discussion of the BoK definition process is on the Web. Marshall–Baker (2005) argued that “the moment knowledge is bordered it is no longer knowledge” (p. xiv). Whereas data and information are easily captured and generalized, knowledge is specific to users and their evolving understandings, implying purposeful application over time. This paper explores knowledge as process transcending boundaries and seeks to answer not “where” the locus lies but rather “what” that locus could be. Using a feminist framework, I argue that in conjunction with the work done thus far we should move toward the creation of an inclusive model for the BoK. In such a model, the value of the profession is felt as a result of inclusion in and interaction with the knowledge creation process. I propose that the BoK should not be a printed document, but a Web–based organizational system that supports change and innovation. Wikipedia provides this type of inclusive, mutable system, and the same framework could be applied to the creation of a systemic BoK. I call this creation the WikiID.

Quick responses to environmental changes have become a vital success factor for today's companies. This study aims to identify the differential mechanisms that drive responsiveness to customers and responsiveness to competitors. In particular, the authors propose a conceptual framework that distinguishes between a cognitive and an affective organizational system as two important antecedents of organizational responsiveness. The results from a large-scale, cross-industry study show that the affective organizational system is more important in driving responsiveness to customers and that the cognitive organizational system is more important in driving responsiveness to competitors. Moreover, the relative importance of the cognitive system as a driver of responsiveness is greater in firms with a low market share and in markets with low entry barriers for new competitors.

To coordinate action, reduce bureaucratic in-fighting and favour the efficient implementation of the governmental agenda, governments are tending to use more collaborative and holistic tools. In Canada, within the federal and provincial governments, relatively integrated corporate management tools have been established for senior civil servants and their work. On the basis of interviews and discussions, this article presents the three types of tools used (a senior personnel secretariat reporting to the head of government, an integrated organizational system and the development of a community culture), which provide: a framework for the development, orientation, integration and support for the most senior managers; strategic, coordination and learning meetings for the entire group; and individualized HRM tools. Despite obstacles to it, and its risks, all of those surveyed conclude that this model is considered, in the Canadian context, both effective and satisfactory.

Research on the competitiveness of regional clusters of firms in the same and related industries has been dominated by a profoundly optimistic view, concerned far more about the integrative possibilities of dense social networks than the dysfunctional consequences of such networks. I argue that this approach, which draws selectively on the transaction cost, knowledge-based and institutionalist perspectives, is one-sided in its fundamental premises, focusing on the presumed benefits of network homogeneity and coherence. It has led researchers to pay insufficient attention to the role of variations and imperfections in copying routines and competencies as a basis of cluster competitiveness. The evolutionary perspective calls into question the common view that competitive cluster network structures develop towards coherence and homogeneity. It views the cluster as a multilevel organizational system whose development is strongly influenced by variation generating processes at the micro-level. I discuss these processes, with special reference to competitive advantage, and outline some of the challenges they imply for empirical research.

The problem and the solution. The design phase of systematic training is directed toward program strategies and the processes of instruction. It is essentially oriented at creating a program strategy and how to teach the content identified in the analysis phase to the identified learners, under identified conditions, so that the instruction is effective, efficient, appealing, and cost-effective. This involves the selection of the (a) optimal overall training program strategy and (b) methods of instruction. The systematic design of instruction, as a professional practice, is likely to undergo changes as a result of multiple environmental variables. This article predicts what some of those changes might be and how they might affect those charged with (a) operating and sustaining existing training systems or (b) creating new systems for improving organizational system performance.

This editorial provides an introduction to the themes of this ‘Special Issue on Organizational Virtue and Moral Agency in Organizations’. MacIntyre, in After Virtue (1981), critically observed that, under the severe pressures of narrowly focused, system-driven, utilitarian financial and bureaucratic calculation, it can be very difficult both for organizations and individuals in their organizational lives to realize and express moral agency and virtue. The articles contained here trace the development of MacIntyre’s analysis of this possibility and consider how organizational pressures against moral agency can be an important problem. In addition, the special issue considers how both philosophical and social-behavioral science approaches reveal similar problems and diagnoses. Further, there is discussion of how the possibilities of and constraints on virtue vary and are more and less severe in different types of organizational systems and situations. The special issue also considers what degrees of freedom, and even methods, organizational members may have available to them in different types of constrained organizational circumstances.

This paper presents a conceptual framework to define seismic resilience of communities and quantitative measures of resilience that can be useful for a coordinated research effort focusing on enhancing this resilience. This framework relies on the complementary measures of resilience: ‘‘Reduced failure probabilities,’’ ‘‘Reduced consequences from failures,’’ and ‘‘Reduced time to recovery.’’ The framework also includes quantitative measures of the ‘‘ends’’ of robustness and rapidity, and the ‘‘means’’ of resourcefulness and redundancy, and integrates those measures into the four dimensions of community resilience—technical, organizational, social, and economic—all of which can be used to quantify measures of resilience for various types of physical and organizational systems. Systems diagrams then establish the tasks required to achieve these objectives. This framework can be useful in future research to determine the resiliency of different units of analysis and systems, and to develop resiliency targets and detailed analytical procedures to generate these values. [DOI: 10.1193/1.1623497]

Clinical outcomes, effective decision-making and the use of evidence in practice have been part of the nursing agenda for many years and a key focus of knowledge generation and utilisation activities in nursing research. However, while this focus prevails, the ability of our organizational systems to support nursing research in practice is still limited. There continues to be a divide between the 'knowledge generators' and the 'knowledge users', and while considerable progress has been made in the use of research in practice, less progress has been made in formally connecting academic and practice communities. This paper argues for such a connection through a focus on practitioner research — a focus that can enable the sharing of academic and practice agendas at a variety of levels. It will be argued that if we are serious about creating 'research cultures' in practice settings, the most feasible way of doing so is through practitioner research, as this approach integrates knowledge-generation with knowledge-utilisation. A strategic approach to practitioner research in one organisation will be described and implications for research career structures discussed.

1. Multiple individual and organizational barriers make it difficult for occupational health nurses and other providers to understand and handle stress in the workplace. 2. Recent research suggests adverse health effects resulting from occupational stress are more related to the context or conditions of work than workers' characteristics. 3. The ecological approach described in this article provides a means to examine the context in which stress occurs through an analysis of four levels of influence. The levels of influence include the microsystem, the organizational system, the peri-organizational system, and the extra-organizational system. 4. Through a careful analysis using this approach, an identification of the entire spectrum of factors contributing to the occurrence of workplace stressors can be identified, and more effective interventions addressing existing and potential problems related to occupational stress can be developed.

Stephen Jay Gould suggests that individual ability has an upper bound in competitive endeavors and tends to improve as a result of that competition. Consequently, over time there is a diminution in the differences in individual performance that will be observed in, and have an impact on, organizational systems. Major League Baseball offers an interesting opportunity for exploring that suggestion in depth. Based on seven performance categories, this article suggests that there has not been any long-term trend toward lessening the talent disparities in baseball. Rather, the bulk of the empirical evidence leads to the conclusion that the disparities have widened. Gould offers his thesis as an explanation for the observed long-term trend of increased competitive balance in the majors. Because the thesis fails the empirical test, the economic explanation of rational profit-maximizing owners who recognize the need to maintain fan interest through competitive games and pennant races retains its pride of place.

High-Performance Leadership. Leading and managing people and organizational systems to achieve and sustain high levels of effectiveness by optimizing goals, design, and management at the individual, process, and organization levels

Solution-focused counseling represents a positive and competency-based perspective on the problems experienced by individuals and by organizational systems. Rather than looking for what is wrong and how to fix it, this approach looks for what is already working and investigates how to use it.

In recent years, "new science" concepts stemming from self-organizing systems theory, chaos theory, and complexity theory have captured the attention of both social scientific researchers and practitioners in a variety of walks of life. This article explores both the promise and the danger of applying new science concepts to organizational behavior and communication. After reviewing key concepts from the new sciences and the adaptation of these concepts to organizational studies, this essay explores a case in which new science concepts are being used in a hospital to revamp nursing structures and practices. The case is first described, then discussed in terms of lessons it can provide.

Teachers of nonprofit organization studies, nonprofit practitioners, and consultants are increasingly dissatisfied with the standard management model approach to solving organizational problems in nonprofits. The standard model provides rational "fixes" to complex organizational issues that miss the contextual, dynamic, and varied environments in which nonprofits operate. This article proposes that an institutional analysis approach represents an important alternative to the standard model because it views nonprofit organizations as embedded in and subcomponents of larger communal and organizational systems. The article explores five elements that distinguish the institutional analysis approach from the standard model: (1) the organization should be considered to exist in social systems, (2) cultural influences that shape organizational behavior must be sought out and analyzed, (3) a variety of constituencies are likely to be important and powerful, (4) coercive influences often shape nonprofits, and (5) organizations operate simultaneously within horizontal and vertical interorganizational networks. Five case studies explicate each of these elements, providing new strategies for resolving the complex organizational issues facing nonprofit organizations.

This paper draws upon data from an investigation of U.S. and Japanese employment and pay systems. Most studies of high-performance workplace organizations have been concerned with 'internal fit', focusing on organizational practices within the firm. In this contribution, the emphasis is upon the 'external fit' between high-performance organizations and their wider environments. The conclusion is that the effectiveness of an organizational system critically depends upon the macroeconomic and institutional contexts within which it is located.

High involvement ergonomics (HIE) has been proposed as a new approach to the use of participation in organizational systems. Recent publications have argued that work organizations need to move toward a more involved or ‘commitment’ approach to the design and management of the organization. Six major organizational considerations or issues in the implementation of high involvement ergonomics are presented which must be addressed by top management if participation and involvement practices are to succeed. Solutions and recommendations for each of these issues are discussed.

Organizational research suggests that the way information is used is likely to be a function of the presence of organizational systems or processes, in addition to individual manager activities. The author suggests that firms vary their emphasis on certain organizational market information processes, such as information acquisition, information transmission, conceptual use of information, and instrumental use of information. The author argues that the emphasis is determined, in part, by the congruence, or fit, among an organization's cultural norms and values and theorizes that the presence of these organizational information processes affects new product outcomes. Survey results indicate that clans dominate the other cultures in predicting organizational market information processes, suggesting that information processes are fundamentally “people processes” that involve commitment and trust among organizational members. The results have important implications for balancing internal and external orientations within firms. The results also indicate that the information utilization processes, especially those that are conceptual in nature, are strong predictors of new product performance, timeliness, and creativity, indicating that competitive advantage is tied to information utilization activities in firms.

High involvement ergonomics is introduced as a macroergonomic approach to the implementation of technology in organizational systems which requires that workers be involved in developing and implementing the technology. It has been proposed that work organizations move toward a more involved or commitment approach to the design and operation of the organization. Several types of involvement approaches are discussed, the managerial role in high involvement organizations is examined, and conclusions are drawn regarding the implementation of high involvement ergonomics.

Most organizational systems today are hierarchically arranged, and our under standing of formal leadership holds great significance in both theory and application. One of the crucial elements that ...

Before the United States can create the capability to compete in the international market place, it must address the need for organizational systems that are composed of components from both the public and private sectors. This article investigates the constraints on effective policy resulting from: (1) ideology and economic theory, (2) an inaccurate reading of history, and (3) an outdated interpretation of technological innovation. The article concludes that one cannot have a technology policy if one does not create systems that can pick winners.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact that the hiring of a professional staff person had on the structural and systemic arrangements of a voluntary sport organization. Six organizations were examined at critical decisions points following the hiring of a professional staff member. The introduction of these people was shown to result in an increase in both the levels of specialization and standardization within these organizations. The increases occurred differentially across organizational systems, with technical systems showing the greatest increases. Decision making was found to become more centralized immediately after the hiring of a professional, however it decentralized over time.

The communicative dimensions of career models have been insufficiently explored in contemporary career literature. Linear or bureaucratic career models dominate career research, metaphors, paradigms, and ideologies while maintaining career myths. These myths suggest the possibility of flexibility and individualized routes to “success” in organizational systems incapable of offering such versatility. Nonlinear career models offer suggestive metaphors for re-visioning careers and the promise of personalized definitions of success, control, and growth. Nonlinear approaches reconfigure career concepts to incorporate acceptance of individual needs and communal values consonant with demographic and structural societal changes.

Human and organizational factors affecting safety and accident potential of large-scale technological systems (e.g., chemical processing or nuclear power plants) in the contexts of both developed and developing countries are investigated. It is concluded that the critical areas in need of serious attention (and further research) should include: Considering local user population's attributes, considering physical environmental conditions affecting operators' safety and performance, considering the effects of cultural and religious variables, employing more adaptive managerial and organizational systems, and determining the appropriated level of needed requisite variety and other organizational control mechanism. The yields and potential applications of this type of research are enumerated.

The adaptive demands of a physicians' residency program include relocation to another area, mastery of a new organizational system, and a new level of role responsibility, in addition to education and patient care activities. This study examined the prevalence of significant psychiatric symptoms in medical, surgical, and pediatric interns for three four-month intervals. Following a cohort of 39 residents over the course of their first year, using the SCL-90—R, there was an elevated prevalence ( M = 35%) of significant anxiety and depression throughout the year. Given the consistent high anxiety and depression, more research needs to be undertaken to understand the interaction of initial and ongoing adaptive demands.

Participatory ergonomics is a flexible means for the achievement of many diverse goals in turbulent technological environments. It is a macroergonomic approach to the implementation of technology in organizational systems which requires that end-users be highly involved in developing and implementing the technology. The notion of participation offers the promise of tremendous potential gains for the organization, the worker, and even the economic well-being of the greater society. Such pervasive and important technological innovations as the use of computers and their concomitant video display terminals can, in spite of their usefulness, lead to many occupational health and safety problems. Cumulative trauma disorders appear to be an associated dysfunction in modern industry, and effective health and safety solutions to many of these problems are highly important, both to the organization and especially to the people in it. It is proposed that the use of participation and worker involvement in the solution of such problems is a powerful and promising tool. There is no one best way to employ worker participation. It is contingent upon the nature of the problem itself, the work system, the job design presently in place, the environment in which the work is done, the training of the worker, and a myriad of other variables. From the available empirical evidence, a participation typology is postulated. The successful implementation of participatory ergonomics and other participatory arrangements requires the empowerment and enablement of people to make decisions concerning their work and to implement and evaluate them. Several participatory approaches to worker involvement are presented which address work system and job design factors, design of the work environment, and training of VDT operators. These approaches are discussed in the context of a systems approach to the prevention of WMSDs. The reduction and/or prevention of cumulative trauma disorders such as work-related musculoskeletal disorders is a matter of great concern in modern organizational life, both from the point of view of productivity concerns and also from that of the humanization of work. The solution of occupational health and safety problems will not only lead to increased organizational effectiveness, but should help provide for a far better realization of human potential.

This study was designed to examine the dynamics of quantum versus incremental M-form reorganization on financial performance. The dynamics of reorganizations in six companies were studied by means of time-series intervention analysis, since a structural change can beformally considered an' 'intervention" upon the existing organizational system. The technique used was Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) intervention analysis. Three different models of reorganization impact on performance were specified and examined. The results indicate that reorganization to the M-form produces a positive effect on financial performance, with incremental reorganizations having less of a positive impact than quantum reorganizations.

The theories of participation and power equalization are discussed in terms of their philosophy, objectives, and techniques. A clarification of the differences between the theories is presented based upon the amount and distribution of influence within an organizational system. The participation and power-equalization hypotheses are tested using attitude data collected from three levels of management in 12 plants of a large manufacturing organization and a multivariate ANOVA design. The major finding is the identification of a consistent interaction pattern involving participation and power equalization which enhances prediction of satisfaction and effectiveness over that offered by the variables singularly. This finding suggests the integration of the theories of participation and power equalization.

This paper explores the relationship between an individual's scenario about his own future and his characterizing behaviors within the institutional setting. Statements made by 87 persons about their own futures (5 years ahead) are examined, coded (in terms of the person's ease of projecting himself into the future situation), and related with measures of the person's overall performance and activism within the organizational system. The relationships (and nonrelationships) found indicate that there are behaviorally important differences in individual styles of cognizing one's own future. Two different orientations toward futurity seem to be evidenced from these results and those previously reported by the author in Human Relations. The first is a facility to project oneself ahead and to picture one's own future, which is associated with active participation in the ongoing organizationalprocesses. The second is a motivation to generate multiple images of alternatives to the prevailing system, which is associated with organizational activism and innovative behavior.

Viewing organizations as political environments, the paper examines the nature and function of deceptive behaviors in organizations. Key concepts presented are the personal and work-related power acquisition behaviors of individuals and the differential exhibition of these behaviors within highand low-slack organizational systems. Within the framework of deceptive behaviors as a function of the form of power acquisition behaviors and nature of the organization, the underlying basis of deceptive behaviors, the benefits of deception to organizational members, and the benefits of deception to the organization are discussed.

House Group is an organizational system intended to ensure that each student develops a solid rela tionship with at least one adult professional in the school. The author encourages readers wishing additional information about the program to write to him.

Intervening with an intervention is to enter into a human or organizational system of relationships for the purpose of making a helpful difference. If done properly, interventions can transform deficits into assets, initiate influence in the proper places, and create a climate for creative problem solving. Selecting the proper intervention is preceded by understanding the problem context, completing an accurate diagnosis, including the assessment of system variables that will support or hinder a given intervention, taking ownership of the problem, and determining consultee client readiness. Intervention failures are caused by too much or too little diagnosis, by setting goals impossible to reach, or by implementing the wrong intervention. In addition, because of the intricacies of selecting and implementing the proper intervention, it is essential that the consultant's definition of consultation be articulated to the consultee.

There is a need for a new organizational system for the growing department store chain, since existing systems do not support traditional marketing strategies.

This study examines the ways in which teacher work values affect job satisfaction within relatively closed and open school organiza tional systems. The findings suggest that these different types of formal organization generate patterns of work attitudes which are related more to type of system than to the disparate work values of teachers. Nonetheless, certain differences among value types indicate a "directional trend" in problem emphasis from vertical to lateral work relations as one's attention moves from examining closed to more open organizational systems. Mr. Coughlan is an Associate Professor in The School of Education at Northwestern Unversity.

This paper examines the concept of participatory ergonomics and its conceptual underpinnings. Available evidence on successful applications of participatory ergonomics are covered. These successful applications across cultures are necessary to establish that participatory ergonomics is a robust, culture-free method. Three areas of research are identified and suggested as future criteria for evaluating future participatory ergonomic interventions. These criteria will create systematic evaluations of both individual and organizational systems.

Organizational systems and engineering groups: a comparative study of two technical groups in industry , Organizational systems and engineering groups: a comparative study of two technical groups in indust... , کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن آوری اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)