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Physical literacy relates to an individual's capacity to live a physically active and healthy lifestyle across the lifespan. Our understanding of physical literacy as a lifelong journey is hindered by a lack of valid measurement for adult populations. In response, we created a measure of physical literacy applicable to adults. A sample of 1180 adults answered a series of existing questionnaires assessing aspects of physical literacy. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis techniques, we reduced the items to a 23-item six factor model, which had good fit to the data in both the exploratory analysis (χ 2 (130) = 254.770, p  < 0.001; TLI = 0.965; RMSEA = 0.040 (95% CI: 0.031, 0.049)) and confirmatory analysis (χ 2 ;(130) = 252.005, p  < 0.001; TLI = 0.957; RMSEA = 0.046 (95% CI: 0.036, 0.056)). The resulting subjective measure, the Physical Literacy in Adults Scale (PLAS), is a single psychometric measure applicable to adults aged 18-75 years. The PLAS covers four domains (physical, psychological, social and cognitive) of physical literacy to provide a holistic physical literacy outcome. The PLAS represents an appropriate way to assess adult physical literacy, providing an important first step in understanding physical literacy as a lifelong journey.

Growing anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury incidence is reported in countries across Europe, North America and in Australia for 5-14-year-olds, yet research on injury risk reduction predominantly focuses on populations aged > 13 years. For injury risk reduction, it is crucial to understand (i) which modifiable risk factors are associated with ACL injury in children (6-13 years) and (ii) how these risk factors are assessed. Articles were grouped according to sex/gender and/or maturational/age differences and examined modifiable risk factors during different physical screening tasks. The included articles ( n  = 40) predominantly examined intrinsic risk factors in girls aged 10-13 years. Factors mechanically linked to increased ACL loading at this age included increased peak knee adductor moments, knee valgus angles, hip and knee extension, and ground reaction forces. Assessment focused on laboratory-based assessments (e.g., motion capture, force plates). This review concluded that modifiable risk factors are present in children aged 6-13 years and that injury risk reduction strategies should be implemented as early as possible regardless of sex/gender. Further, screening strategies need updating to be childhood specific and feasible for the wide community. Additional research on extrinsic risk factors, norm values and children aged 6-9 years could allow for more targeted risk reduction strategies.

Promoting swimming and water safety is an important public health issue. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence (PSPWC) requires children to indicate their perceived competence using three difficulty levels for 17 swimming scenarios. The aim was to purposefully select four critical scenarios of the PSPWC to create the PSPWC-short form and test for associations with actual swim competence. Four of 17 scenarios were selected and extended to a four-point response scale by adding an extra difficulty level. Parents whose children had participated in at least 1-week swim-intensive programme in 2021 were invited to participate in the study, and perceptions of 139 children (mean age 6.9 years, SD = 1.9) were matched with certificate data of actual swim competence pre- (n = 139) and post-programme (n = 29). Moderate positive correlations were found between swim level at programme start and perception of: retrieving an object in deep water ( rho  = 0.57), swimming on front ( rho  = 0.60), swimming on back ( rho  = 0.69), treading water ( rho  = 0.63) and the summed score of all four ( rho  = 0.71). After adjusting for sex and age, higher perceived skill was still significantly associated with increasing achieved skill levels. The PSPWC-short form appears to provide a valid measure to be used as a brief screening assessment.

Being and perceiving oneself as proficient in motor skills seems essential for an active lifestyle; conversely, being active and perceiving oneself as proficient may be associated with greater motor competence. By expanding the causal path view about the relationship between active and healthy developmental system elements, this study tested the mediation hypothesis of perceived motor competence in the relationship between motor competence and physical activity - in both ways - and moderation by developmental phase and sex. This cross-sectional study sampled healthy schoolchildren (n = 379; 8.2 ± 1.7 years; 54.9% boys). Physical activity (questionnaire), motor competence (tests included locomotor and object control skills) and perception of motor competence (a pictorial scale) were assessed. Maximum likelihood structural equation models with fit statistics confirmed the mediation in both ways. Unexpectedly, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity was inverse. Sex was a moderating variable (boys). In a systemic relational paradigm of human development, perceived motor competence, motor competence, and physical activity interact in an active and healthy behavioural system, but the complexities of understanding how these elements relate to one another across childhood point to the need for future longitudinal studies.

The study aims were to 1) examine profiles of perception of motor competence (PMC) in relation to actual motor competence (AMC), i.e. under-estimators (UEs), realistic estimators (REs) and over-estimators (OEs) and 2) investigate associations between the profiles and selected socioecological factors at the individual, family and environmental levels. PMC (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence) and AMC (Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition) were administered to a representative sample of children from 37 childcare centres in Finland (n=441;6.2±0.6yrs;52% boys). Socioecological factors were investigated using a parental questionnaire. The three profiles were formed based on age- and gender-adjusted PMC and AMC z-scores. Multinomial logistic regression showed that OEs (n=81; p=0.04) tended to be younger than REs (n=306; p=0.04) and UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Parents of OEs reported more child health and developmental issues than parents of REs (p=0.03). Parents of UEs self-reported providing more support for physical activity than parents' of REs (p=0.04). REs tended to live in denser population areas than UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Whilst PMC profiles revealed some socioecological differences, future research needs to focus on a broader range of potential correlates and untangle methodological analyses challenges to deepen the knowledge about PMC development in children.

To have population-level impact, interventions must be effectively implemented and sustained under real-world conditions. Few Fundamental Movement Skill (FMS) interventions are implemented at scale, and even fewer are sustained in a way that allows for ongoing evaluation. There has been increasing recognition of applying systems thinking to investigate the multitude of influences on interventions. To improve research-practice translations, investigations need to incorporate synthesised perspective and collective input from intervention stakeholders. This study trials Collective Intelligence (CI) - an applied systems science approach - to understand barriers to the adoption, implementation and institutionalisation of effective FMS interventions for children and adolescents. A total of 58 barriers were generated and organised into 13 barrier categories. Participants voted to select 10 critical barriers and generated a structural map among the barriers to guide future action mapping. Barriers related to Government and Institutional factors and Curricular Conflicts were structured as fundamental drivers of the system of barriers. By presenting this application example, we aim to underline the considerations and alleviate barriers to conducting much needed implementation and sustainability studies in FMS interventions. CI also adds to the "tool box" to understand the complexity and functioning of public health interventions, such as those targeting physical activity behaviours.

Previous studies investigating the relationship between motor skill, physical activity and fitness in children have not thoroughly considered the role of self-perception. Therefore, the study aim was to test a theoretical framework, which considered both actual and perceived motor skill as well as actual and perceived fitness. Potential moderating effects of sex and country were considered. Data on motor skill, fitness, as well as self-perception of motor skill and fitness were collected from 145 Australian children and 214 German children (age range 7 to 10 years). For actual motor skill and fitness, mean differences for sex, age and country were found. For perceived motor performance (perceived motor skill and perceived fitness) no mean differences were found for age. Path analyses were performed. The final model showed significant relations between actual performance (object control skill, fitness) and perceived performance (object control skill, fitness). All model paths had low to moderate regression weights with the lowest relationship reported between actual and perceived fitness. Sex and country showed no effects. This integrated approach has led to a better understanding of the relationship between children's perceived and objective performance, and cultural differences within them.

Valid and reliable tests of motor competence are necessary to allow researchers and practitioners to quantify levels of motor competence, identify skill deficiencies, and determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions. The primary study aim was to systematically review the validity and reliability of scores derived from gross motor competence tests for typically developing child and adolescent populations. The secondary aim of this review was to identify the most prevalent motor skills assessed across all instruments. A search of seven electronic databases identified 57 different skill assessment tools from 107 studies. Construct validity was the most common measurement property examined (60 studies; 56%). Content validity (21 studies; 20%) was the least commonly explored measurement property. Scores derived from the Test of Gross Motor Development - second and third edition had the most support for validity and reliability. The most common skills included in these skill batteries were the overhand throw (n = 33), catch (n = 32), jump (n = 31) and hop (n = 26). Research efforts should focus on: (1) further investigation of measurement properties of existing tools rather than developing new assessments and (2) further investigation of existing tools and their measurement properties in adolescent populations.

Motor competence (MC) in youth is associated with positive health outcomes, yet few achieve their developmental capability. Although numerous MC studies address initial intervention effectiveness, fewer consider intervention sustainability. This study aimed to investigate whether teachers continued to implement an effective MC programme targeting girls (mean age 12.4 ± 0.3 years), three years post-intervention. Ongoing implementation was examined using three domains of the UK Medical Research Council's framework: (i) implementation, (ii) mechanisms of impact, and (iii) context. Teachers (n = 18) completed self-report questionnaires and participated in focus group discussions (FGs). Descriptive statistics analysed questionnaires. FGs were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed in NVivo 11 using a framework approach. All teachers had continued to implement the programme, or elements thereof, three years post-intervention. The intervention structure, in particular alignment to the physical education context and curriculum, most notably influenced ongoing programme implementation. Improvement, both teacher practice and student performance, emerged as a driver of sustained impact. The programme demand appeared to be the most important facilitator of programme sustainability. Adaptations made to enhance contextual fit of the programme, post-intervention, extended the programme reach. Framed by implementation science, these findings provide valuable insight into programme sustainability and potential scalability.

The study purpose was to use Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) to objectively assess children's motor competence in seven movement skills. Fourteen children aged from seven to 12 years (M = 9.64) participated. Children were asked to perform up to 10 trials of each skill. Children performed the skills, which were captured by XSENS MVN Awinda wireless motion capture, and video. Skills were assessed from video as per the criteria from the Test of Gross Motor Development 3. Initially, 17 IMU sensors were used for signal processing, but this was restricted to four sensors (wrists and ankles) to be more feasible for field assessment. Results of the signal testing against its modelled "Good" signal, showed the skip was classified correctly each time, as was the sidestep. Accuracy % rates for each skill were: kick (95.2), catch (95.0), throw (80.5), jump (78.9), and hop (76.9). Using signal processing-based methods via four sensors was a reliable and feasible way to assess seven motor skills in children. This approach means monitoring and assessment of children's skills can be objective, which will potentially reduce the time involved in motor skill assessment and analysis for research, clinical, sport and education purposes.

This study modelled children's gross motor coordination, investigated sex-differences and identified the effects of fixed and dynamic correlates on motor coordination development. A total of 344 Portuguese children (170 girls), from 6 age cohorts (5 to 9 years of age), were followed consecutively for three years (age range 5 to 11 years) using a mixed-longitudinal cohort design. Birth weight, hand dominance and socioeconomic status (SES) were identified. Gross motor coordination, body mass index, physical fitness (PF) and physical activity (PA) were assessed annually. A sequence of multilevel hierarchical linear models were developed. Model 1 found that age, age 2 , sex, sex-by-age and sex-by-age 2 were significant predictors (p < 0.05) of gross motor coordination. Boys outperformed girls from 6 years of age onwards. Model 2 found a cohort effect (p < 0.05). Model 3 found that right handers were more coordinated (p < 0.05). When the confounders of body mass index, PF and PA were added to the model (Model 4) it was found that boys and girls had parallel trajectories in their gross motor coordination development. In conclusion children with increasing body mass index were less coordinated, while those who were stronger and more agile had steeper trajectories of gross motor coordination with age.

Failure to master age-appropriate fundamental movement skills (FMS) at a young age can limit motor skill competence affecting health. Assessments often have issues with feasibility and implementation in a field setting. As such, the purpose of this study was to investigate the validity and feasibility of the Athletic Skills Track (AST), in a pre-school setting. For the validation study sixty-five 3-6 year old children (25 boys and 40 girls) from five pre-schools across Adelaide, Australia participated. Correlations and linear regression analysis (adjusted for age and gender) were used to investigate the association between the time to complete the AST and the raw score of the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). For the feasibility study pre-school staff completed a semi-structured interview regarding the feasibility of the AST. The AST took less than a minute per child and the TGMD-2 around 20 minutes for two children. There was a strong negative correlation (r = -0.63, p < 0.01) between the AST scores and the TGMD-2 scores. All five staff reported strengths of the AST to be its short administration time, setup and appropriateness. These results suggest that the AST could be a feasible and valid method of FMS assessment in Australian pre-schools.

This study aims to develop profiles in children according to physical fitness, actual and perceived motor competence, and to examine the level of engagement in physical activity and weight status according to these profiles. In the study, 156 typically developing Spanish children (47.4% girls) of primary school age (5-11 years-old) participated voluntarily. Children's perceived and actual motor competence, physical fitness, physical activity participation and weight status were assessed. A Self-Organising Map and K-means cluster analysis were used to classify and visualise the values. Four profiles were found: profile 2 was aligned - high capacity, high perception, profile 1 was partially aligned - medium capacity and perception, profile 3 and 4 were both non-aligned - low capacity, medium perception and medium capacity, low perception; respectively. Children in profile 2 were more active than children in profile 3 and 4 (P < .05). In profile 2 there was a lower frequency of overweight/obese children than normal-weight children. On the contrary, in profiles 1, 3 and 4 a similar distribution of normal-weight and overweight/obese children was found. High capable children with high perception exhibited higher physical activity participation and were more likely to be of normal-weight compared to those with low capacity and/or perception.

Children's fundamental movement skill levels (FMS) predict moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Asian children have been reported as less active than English-Europeans, possibly due to poorer skills. This study compared the FMS of children from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) backgrounds and examined FMS correlates. A total of 261 children (122 males) aged 9-to-11 years were divided based on language spoken at home: English-European (n = 105) and Asian (n = 156). Height, mass, FMS (Test of Gross Motor Development-2), MVPA (accelerometer) and cardio-respiratory fitness (20m multistage shuttle run) were directly measured. Sex, age, language and perceived sport competence (CY-PSPP) were self-reported. Independent sample t-tests assessed age, BMI, FMS and perception by CALD group. Linear mixed models examined FMS correlates. Asian-speaking children had lower object control skill (35.5 v 37.2; CI [0.17, 3.18]; p < 0.03) compared to English-European- children, but no between-group differences in locomotor skills were observed. Fitness, physical activity and sport competence perception were positively associated with object control, yet adjusting for these variables (and age and BMI) did not remove the CALD effect (B = -2.02, SE = 0.69, p = 0.004). Cultural factors may affect object control competence in Asian-Australian children.

Fundamental movement skill (FMS) assessment in preschools allows for early intervention; however it is unclear what assessments are feasible. The purpose of this review is to systematically review the feasibility of FMS assessments for pre-school aged children. The search was conducted across four databases, MEDLINE, Scopus, ERIC and SportsDiscus. Search terms included synonyms of "fundamental movement skills" and "pre-school children". Inclusion criteria were: (i) FMS assessment; (ii) feasibility data; (iii) assessment of children aged three to six years; (iv) assessment of typically developing children; and (v) peer reviewed full text publications in English. Feasibility concepts (administration time, equipment, space, assessment type, item, training, qualification) were each coded as 'poor = 1', 'average = 2' and 'good = 3'; potential total of 21. A total of 330 full text articles were considered but a quarter (n = 86) were excluded due to no feasibility data. Sixty-five studies using 13 different FMS assessments were included. The Athletic Skills Track and DEMOST-PRE assessments were most feasible (18/21) and the Test of Gross Motor Development and Movement Assessment Battery for Children were common but among the least feasible (12-14/21). This review allows pre-school staff to choose a FMS assessment based on feasibility. Future studies need to present feasibility of assessments.

Perceived and actual motor competence (MC) influence physical activity (PA) behaviour. Notably, both are lower in girls than in boys. This study aimed to investigate (i) whether a 12-week, teacher-led intervention that improves actual MC (Lander, N., Morgan, P. J., Salmon, J., & Barnett, L. M. (2017). Improving early-adolescent girls' motor skill: A cluster randomized controlled trial. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 49 (12), 2498-2505) could also improve adolescent girls' physical self-perception and perceived MC, and (ii) whether change in actual MC is associated with post-intervention perceptions A randomized controlled trial with 171 girls (mean age 12.48 ± 0.34 years), measured perception (i.e., physical self-perception profile (PSPP) and pictorial scale of perceived movement skill competence (PMSC)) and actual MC (i.e., Victorian FMS Teachers' Assessment Manual). Mixed models with post-intervention perception as the outcome, adjusting for baseline perception, group, and change in actual MC, as well as clustering, were performed. An interaction term between change in MC and intervention status was included to test the secondary aim. There were significant intervention effects on girls' physical self-perception as well as their perceived MC. However, there was no association between change in actual MC across the intervention and post intervention perception. While the intervention improved both actual MC and perceived MC, they were not associated.

Numerous skill batteries assess fundamental motor skill (e.g., kick, hop) competence. Few skill batteries examine lifelong physical activity skill competence (e.g., resistance training). This study aimed to develop and assess the content validity, test-retest and inter-rater reliability of the "Lifelong Physical Activity Skills Battery". Development of the skill battery occurred in three stages: i) systematic reviews of lifelong physical activity participation rates and existing motor skill assessment tools, ii) practitioner consultation and iii) research expert consultation. The final battery included eight skills: grapevine, golf swing, jog, push-up, squat, tennis forehand, upward dog and warrior I. Adolescents (28 boys, 29 girls; M = 15.8 years, SD = 0.4 years) completed the Lifelong Physical Activity Skills Battery on two occasions two weeks apart. The skill battery was highly reliable (ICC = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.72-0.90) with individual skill reliability scores ranging from moderate (warrior I; ICC = 0.56) to high (tennis forehand; ICC = 0.82). Typical error (4.0; 95% CI 3.4-5.0) and proportional bias (r = -0.21, p = .323) were low. This study has provided preliminary evidence for the content validity and reliability of the Lifelong Physical Activity Skills Battery in an adolescent population.

The first aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between motor performance and body fatness among 3- to 5-year-old children. The second aim was to assess whether this relationship works similarly for boys and girls. We also investigated whether socioeconomic status (SES) and geographical area when children are aged 3 years old predicts the motor performance of 4 and 5-yr-old children. Motor performance was assessed through the Preschool Test Battery, while body fatness was estimated through body mass index (BMI). SES and geographical area were assessed via parent proxy-report questionnaires. BMI was negatively associated with standing long jump. The association of BMI and motor performance was not statistically different for boys and girls. Children from low SES performed better than high SES peers in tennis ball throw for distance. Rural children were better performers than urban peers in standing long jump. Rural area at baseline was also predictor of standing long jump and tennis ball throw for distance at time 1 and 2. In conclusion, BMI had a negative association with standing long jump and the relationship of BMI with all motor tests was similar for boys and girls. SES and rural area were predictors of motor performance.

Participation in organized sports is promoted as a means of increasing physical activity levels and reducing chronic disease risk in adults. Hard martial arts practice (i.e. using body contact techniques), has gained in popularity over time. This review explores the evidence for health benefits of "hard" martial arts practice within the adult population. A systematic electronic database search was conducted, and quality assessments applied the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool. Twenty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria, examining balance, cognitive function, muscular skeletal status, psychological, cardiovascular fitness, and metabolic effects. The majority of studies reported positive effects resulting from hard martial arts practice, showing some improvement and maintenance of balance, cognitive function and psychological health. Benefits may be obtained regardless of the age of practice commencement. However, quality of the evidence is affected by methodological weaknesses across the studies. "Hard" martial arts seem to have potential to improve balance and cognitive functions that decline with age, which can lead to poorer health outcomes among the elderly (e.g. cognitive decline, falls and fractures). Benefits should be further investigated with improved intervention studies, representative samples and longer follow-up periods in order to establish associations with morbidity and mortality in the long term.

The aim of this study is to examine the prevalence and correlates of adolescents' resistance training (RT) skill competence. Participants were 548 adolescents (14.1 ± 0.5 years) from 16 schools in New South Wales, Australia. RT skills were assessed using the Resistance Training Skills Battery. Demographics, BMI, muscular fitness, perceived strength, RT self-efficacy, and motivation for RT were also assessed. The proportion demonstrating "competence" and "near competence" in each of the six RT skills were calculated and sex differences explored. Associations between the combined RT skill score and potential correlates were examined using multi-level linear mixed models. Overall, the prevalence of competence was low (range = 3.3% to 27.9%). Females outperformed males on the squat, lunge and overhead press, whereas males performed better on the push-up (p < .05). Significant associations were seen for a number of correlates, which largely differed by sex. Muscular fitness was moderately and positively associated with RT skills among both males (β = 0.34, 95%CIs = 0.23 to 0.46) and females (β = 0.36, 95%CIs = 0.23 to 0.48). Our findings support a link between RT skills and muscular fitness. Other associations were statistically significant but small in magnitude, and should therefore be interpreted cautiously.

Little is known about whether physical activity compensation occurs and, if so, what are potential moderators of such responses. This study examined whether children's physical activity, sedentary time and energy expenditure on one day was associated with these behaviours the following day, and what factors may moderate observed associations. One hundred and twenty-seven children (8-11 years) wore an ActiGraph accelerometer for eight days. Time spent in sedentary time and physical activity was obtained. Daily energy expenditure was also assessed using a SenseWear Armband (n=98). Moderators examined were sex, age, BMI, fitness, and fundamental movement skills (FMS). Multilevel analyses were conducted using generalized mixed models. On any given day, every additional 10 minutes spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was associated with 9.3 minutes less MVPA the following day. Every additional 10kcal expended on one day was associated with 2.9 fewer kcal expended the following day. Additional time spent sedentary on any given day was associated with less light physical activity the following day in children with lower FMS. The results are largely consistent with the compensation hypothesis, with children appearing to compensate their activity between days. Strategies to minimise potential compensatory changes may be needed for children overall rather than for specific population sub-groups.

Process-oriented motor competence (MC) assessments evaluate how a movement is performed. Product-oriented assessments evaluate the outcome of a movement. Determining the concurrent validity of process and product assessments is important to address the predictive utility of motor competence for health. The current study aimed to: (1) compare process and product assessments of the standing long jump, hop and throw across age groups and (2) determine the capacity of process assessments to classify levels of MC. Participants included 170 children classified into three age groups: 4-5, 7-8 and 10-11 years old. Participants' skills were examined concurrently using three process assessments ((Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition [TGMD-2]), Get Skilled; Get Active, and developmental sequences) and one product measure (throw speed, jump and hop distance). Results indicate moderate to strong correlations between (1) process assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .37-70) and (2) process and product assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .26-.88). In general, sensitivity to detect advanced skill level is lowest for TGMD-2 and highest for developmental sequences for all three skills. The use of process and product assessments is suggested to comprehensively capture levels of MC in human movement.

Numerous studies have identified a positive association between fundamental movement skill (FMS) competency and physical activity in children; however, the causal pathways have not been established. The aim of this study is to determine if changes in FMS competency mediated the effect of the Supporting Children's Outcomes using Rewards, Exercise and Skills (SCORES) intervention on physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness in children. Eight primary schools (25 classes) and 460 children (aged 8.5 ± 0.6, 54% girls) were randomised to the SCORES intervention or control group for the 12-month study. The outcomes were accelerometer-determined moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and cardiorespiratory fitness. The hypothesised mediators were actual FMS competency and perceived sport competence. Mediation analyses were conducted using multilevel linear analysis in MPlus. From the original sample, 138 (30.0%) and 370 (80.4%) children provided useable physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness data at post-test assessments. There were significant treatment effects for locomotor skills and overall FMSs. Changes in MVPA were associated with changes in object-control skills, overall FMSs and perceived competence. The overall FMSs had a significant mediating effect on MVPA (AB = 2.09, CI = 0.01-4.55). Overall FMSs (AB = 1.19, CI = 0.002-2.79) and locomotor skills (AB = 0.74, CI = 0.01-1.69) had a significant mediating effect on cardiorespiratory fitness. The results of this study conclude that actual but not perceived movement skill competency mediated the effect of the SCORES intervention on physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness.