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Paper and board products include four main product groups—packaging, newsprint, graphic and copying paper and tissue paper. The copying paper product group includes: sheets or reels of unprinted paper in different formats, used for copying, fax machines or office printers. Tissue paper products are defined by the EU Flower eco-label as: sheets or rolls of tissue paper fit for use for personal hygiene, absorption of liquids and/or cleaning of soiled surfaces. Tissue paper production is located predominantly in France, Germany, Italy and the UK, with these countries producing over 70% of Europe's tissue paper. Norway is an importer of tissue paper. There are only 14 factories in Norway producing pulp and paper products. In particular, at the end of 2001, for a specific tissue paper product, the sales of eco-labelled products accounted for almost 30% of the total product sales of one large distributor.

This collection of classic essays focuses on the theoretical frameworks that informed the work of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham, the methodologies and working practices that the Centre developed for conducting academic research and examples of the studies carried out under the auspices of the Centre. This volume is split into seven thematic sections that are introduced by key academics working in the field of cultural studies, and includes a preface by eminent scholar, Stuart Hall. The thematic sections are: * Literature and Society * Popular Culture and Youth Subculture * Media * Women's Studies and Feminism * Race * History * Education and Work.

Printed matter assails us today as never before. Even in the age of email and the paperless office, we're besieged daily by junk mail, magazines and newspapers. We're handed flyers in the street, we're sent leaflets in the mail. And every single one of these has been designed to catch our attention, to make us buy into the product it's promoting.

Outside of the plant, lignin is useful as a component of the diet of ruminant mammals; a soil property improver in the process of natural decay; and a source of peat, lignite, and coal. The most common use of lignin from pulping operations or ethanol from biomass processes is as a fuel. Other uses for lignin is of three large groups, two of which require chemical modification of the biopolymer. They are: breaking lignin down into component aromatics or repeat units, using the biopolymer as extracted from the wood, and adding to the lignin biopolymer, treating it as a starting material to be built on to make useful materials. Extensive studies on the modification of lignin by graft copolymerization have been made because of the enormous mass of kraft lignin produced each year by the pulp and paper industry. Graft copolymerization sharply changes the properties of lignin and allows useful products to be made from this underutilized portion of biomass.

The empirical knowledge which came in the early 19th century from bridge building on a scale unknown in the Old World led entirely without the aid of theory to the evolution and perfection of all major types of wooden bridge truss. Fortunately Killer, who at first intended to publish merely a short paper exposing the error, was persuaded to undertake the detailed study of the family and their works which finally appeared in book form in 1941. In the first essay he took a normal frame configuration with vertical posts, diagonal braces and counter-braces, but instead of using arch reinforcement he employed struts below the bottom chords at the ends and over the top chords at mid-span to give, in effect, polygonal reinforcement. By the time his book was published Haupt had become a convert to the Howe truss, which was the crowning glory of the wooden bridge era, generally accepted as the best ever.

This chapter discusses the literature on the production of monoammonium phosphate (MAP). Information on the formation of citrate-insoluble phosphates in the production of MAP and the use of MAP in the production of granular NPK fertilizer is also included. In the early stage of production of ammonium phosphates, a granular 11-48-0 grade of MAP was one of the main products. In 1967 Young and Hicks reported on pilot-plant studies of the production of granular MAP in facilities built for the TVA granular diammonium phosphate process. Achorn and Salladay described tests in a conventional Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)-type ammoniation-granulation plant in which a pipe-cross reactor was used in the production of a granular 12-48-0 grade of MAP. In 1972 the TVA demonstrated the use of powdered MAP in the production of granular NPK fertilizer in a granulation pilot plant. In 1973 Peng described commercial-scale production of granular compound fertilizers using nongranular MAP in the formulations.

Diammonium phosphate (DAP) has become one of the most extensively used fertilizer materials. Diammonium phosphate can favorably be used in irrigation systems and in the production of liquid or suspension fertilizers, because it is completely soluble in water. The first commercial production of DAP in the United States was started in November 1954 at the Missouri Farmers Association plant at Joplin, Missouri, using the Dorr blunger with free ammoniation taking place in slurry tanks. In the early 1960s Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) developed what is perhaps today the most widely accepted process for production of granular diammonium phosphate. Although a number of the Dorr-Oliver blunger type plants are still in operation, most recent new plants have been of the TVA type having a preneutralizer for partial ammoniation of the phosphoric acid and completion of ammoniation in a TVA patented rotary ammoniator-granulator instead of a blunger.

This chapter deals with reagents that have been used in processing a variety of iron ores, especially low-grade types. The emphasis is on applications of various reagents for separation of impurities from iron ore minerals, plus their chemical functions and physical properties. Flocculants are widely used in iron ore processing for three principal purposes: flocculation of concentrates prior to thickening and final dewatering, thickening of tailings slurries to reclaim water for reuse in the ore treatment, and clarification of dilute waste slurry streams for reclamation of water as an effluent from the plant. Two general classes of flocculants are presently employed in the iron ore processing industry—inorganic chemicals such as lime or alum, and high-molecular-weight synthetic organic polymers. The three general types of flotation reagents are collectors, frothers, and modifiers. The flocculation processes in iron ore processing systems are complicated due to effects and interactions of a number of variables as well as the heterogeneity of the ores.

Coal briquettes and their binders were always tested from the view of resistivity to transportation, loading and storage by measuring the abrasion index and strength to crushing. The binders used in coal briquetting also affect to the combustion properties of coal. Tuncbilek lignite sample and Polymer Laboratories PL-TGA 1500 thermogravimetric analyzer (TG/DTG) for the determination of the combustion properties of the sample were used throughout the research. Molasses, CMC, Sulphide Liquor, Corn Starch, Crude oil, Lime and Sodium Silicate were used as binders with a ratio of 10% by weight. Molasses and CMC decreased the activation energies of the samples and the residue at the end of the combustion. Crude oil, Sulphide Liquor and Corn Starch increased the calorific value of the samples, however they also increased the activation energies. It was observed that Lime and Sodium Silicate were the most disadvantageous binders by not only increasing the activation energies and residue at the end of combustion, but also decreasing the calorific values of the samples.

With sheepskin, the process is somewhat different. In order to prevent the wool being damaged by the alkali it is loosened by a paste of slaked lime that is applied to the flesh surface of the skin. The alkali penetrates through the skin loosening the wool at the roots, which is then pulled from the skin, sorted into different grades, washed, dried and sold to the wool merchant. The skin is immersed in a lime liquor for a further period, after which it is split into two layers. The grain layer is tanned usually by the vegetable tanning process to produce skivers and the flesh split converted into parchment.