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Aim: This study explores a range of barriers that parents encountered in accessing mental health services. The study also explored whether parents experienced similar barriers to accessing services in 2003 and 2013. Methods: One hundred and thirty-four parents of young people attending an initial assessment at a Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (CAMHS) or headspace centre completed a questionnaire assessing 10 general barriers to care. These data were compared to those collected from 129 participants at CAMHS in 2003. Results: The ranking of barriers to mental health care for their children was similar for both survey years, with 'wait time being too long' and 'help being too expensive' the two highest ranked barriers. Cost factors were related to not knowing that the services did not charge fees and having to take time off work to attend appointments. Multiple referral steps and uncertain wait times were the main concerns regarding wait times. The overall strength with which barriers were endorsed remained relatively low; however, at least 40% of the sample agreed they had experienced four of the barriers in both years. Conclusions: Despite relatively low endorsement of barriers, there are substantial proportions of parents who experienced some barriers to services, and services should continue working to reduce them to facilitate timely access. There is a particular need for more service-related information to clarify that public sector mental health services do not charge fees. Methods such as rapid initial assessment and actively managing wait lists may go some way to reducing perceived wait time barriers.

This study examined the relevance of infant temperament, parent personality and parenting stress for children’s socio-emotional development, looking in addition for any differences between mothers and fathers. Participants, from a community sample, were 410 mothers and fathers reporting their personality (NEO Personality Inventory), child temperament in the first (Infant Characteristics Questionnaire) and second (Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire) years, parenting stress to 36 months (Parenting Stress Index Short Form) and child behaviour at 51 months (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire). Difficult toddler temperament was associated with more externalizing and internalizing problems. Higher paternal extraversion was associated with more prosocial behaviour whereas lower maternal extraversion was associated with more internalizing problems. For both parents, describing a dysfunctional parent–child relationship was related to more externalizing problems and to less prosocial behaviour, for fathers also to more internalizing problems, which associated for mothers with more parental distress.

Mexican-heritage youth are members of the fastest growing minority group and are at particular risk for substance use including alcohol consumption. Youth face numerous risk factors including positive descriptions of substance use on media and peer offers that are potentially ameliorated by parental anti-substance use socialization efforts. Guided by primary socialization theory and the theory of planned behavior, the present study posited eight research questions to identify discrete subgroups/patterns of Mexican-heritage youth alcohol use behavior and parental influence on youth outcomes. Longitudinal survey data (n = 1147) from youth in 29 public schools located in Phoenix, Arizona, were collected over 3 years. Latent class and transition analyses identified four discrete subgroups characterized by response patterns of alcohol use behaviors and perceptions in Mexican-heritage youth: (1) non-drinker, (2) potential drinker, (3) experimenter, and (4) regular drinker. Targeted parent-child communication about alcohol and parental monitoring were found to be significant predictors for youth alcohol use. Research implications and future directions are suggested.

Introduction and Aims: A growing body of research indicates parental supply of alcohol to children and adolescents is common. The present study aimed to examine parents' reasons for supplying alcohol to adolescents that they may find hard to articulate or not be consciously aware of. Design and Methods: A projective methodology was used, whereby respondents were asked to explain the thoughts and motivations of a gender-matched parent in a scenario in which the parent did or did not provide alcohol to their teenage child. Respondents were 97 mothers and 83 fathers of teenagers who completed an anonymous online survey. Open-ended responses were coded thematically; t-tests were used to compare quantitative responses between the scenarios. Results: The quantitative analysis found the parent who provided alcohol was less likely to be seen as making sure their child was safe and educating them about boundaries, but more likely to be seen as being a friend as well as a parent and (for females only) making sure their child fits in with others. The open-ended responses showed explanations for not providing alcohol most commonly focused on ensuring the child's safety, obeying the law, and setting rules and boundaries, and for providing alcohol focused on ensuring the child fit in with peers and beliefs about harm minimisation. Discussion and Conclusions: The findings suggest that these respondents (parents) harboured a number of misperceptions about underage drinking and experienced conflicts in weighing up the perceived benefits of providing alcohol to their children against the risks of adolescent drinking.

This study introduces the Nuremberg Parental Goal Orientation Scales (NuPaGOS) which were designed to measure kindergarten children's parents' goal orientations for their children. The postulated four goal orientations are learning goal orientation, performance goal orientation, well-being goal orientation and fear of over-demanding orientation. We expected that the four factors underlie a g-factor. The hypothesis concerning the structure of the goal orientations was confirmed in a study with 203 parents of kindergarten children. Correlational analyses with validation variables provide initial evidence for the concurrent and discriminant validity of the NuPaGOS.

Objective: This study examines the associations of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) risk status with subsequent parental social network characteristics and caregiver strain in adolescence; and examines predictors of adolescent mental health service use. Methods: Baseline ADHD screening identified children at high risk (n = 207) and low risk (n = 167) for ADHD. At eight-year follow-up, parents reported their social network characteristics, caregiver strain, adolescents' psychopathology and mental health service utilization, whereas adolescents self-reported their emotional status and ADHD stigma perceptions. Analyses were conducted using ANOVAs and nested logistic regression modeling. Results: Parents of youth with childhood ADHD reported support networks consisting of fewer spouses but more healthcare professionals, and lower levels of support than control parents. Caregiver strain increased with adolescent age and psychopathology. Increased parental network support, youth ADHD symptoms, and caregiver strain, but lower youth stigma perceptions were independently associated with increased service use. Conclusions: Raising children with ADHD appears to significantly impact parental social network experiences. Reduced spousal support and overall lower network support levels may contribute to high caregiver strain commonly reported among parents of ADHD youth. Parental social network experiences influence adolescent ADHD service use. With advances in social networking technology, further research is needed to elucidate ways to enhance caregiver support during ADHD care.

Introduction and Aims: A growing body of research indicates parental supply of alcohol to children and adolescents is common. The present study aimed to examine parents' reasons for supplying alcohol to adolescents that they may find hard to articulate or not be consciously aware of. Design and Methods: A projective methodology was used, whereby respondents were asked to explain the thoughts and motivations of a gender-matched parent in a scenario in which the parent did or did not provide alcohol to their teenage child. Respondents were 97 mothers and 83 fathers of teenagers who completed an anonymous online survey. Open-ended responses were coded thematically; t-tests were used to compare quantitative responses between the scenarios. Results: The quantitative analysis found the parent who provided alcohol was less likely to be seen as making sure their child was safe and educating them about boundaries, but more likely to be seen as being a friend as well as a parent and (for females only) making sure their child fits in with others. The open-ended responses showed explanations for not providing alcohol most commonly focused on ensuring the child's safety, obeying the law, and setting rules and boundaries, and for providing alcohol focused on ensuring the child fit in with peers and beliefs about harm minimisation. Discussion and Conclusions: The findings suggest that these respondents (parents) harboured a number of misperceptions about underage drinking and experienced conflicts in weighing up the perceived benefits of providing alcohol to their children against the risks of adolescent drinking.

Background The purpose of this study was to objectively assess pre-school children's total physical activity (TPA) patterns and compliance with guidelines and to examine differences relative to parental education. Methods The sample consisted on 509 healthy pre-school children, aged 3–6 years recruited from kindergartens located in the metropolitan area of Porto, Portugal. The PA was assessed for 7 consecutive days by accelerometry. For TPA, we followed the guidelines of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) (children who spent at least >120 min per day in active play). For TPA, we calculated the proportion of children who spent at least >120 min per day in active play and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), we calculated the proportion of children who spent at least >60 min per day in active play. Parental education was analysed according to the Portuguese education system. Results Children with parents in the highest education level were less active than children from low and middle education level (P ≤ 0.001) in all patterns of PA (week and weekend). Regarding TPA during the week we found that the majority of children from low and middle parental education meet the NASPE guidelines. On the other hand, more than half the children from high parental education did not meet these recommendations (P ≤ 0.001) and MVPA recommendations (P ≤ 0.05). In both recommendations, children from low parental education were twice more likely to meet the recommendations compared with children belonging to high parental education. Conclusion Parent education was negatively associated with children's daily physical activity patterns and compliance with guidelines.

Few studies have reported associations between clustering metabolic risk factors and socioeconomic status (SES) in youth. This study aimed to analyze the association between clustering metabolic risk factors and SES in adolescents. It was hypothesized that SES is inversely related to clustering metabolic risk factors. This 2009 cross-sectional school-based study investigated 517 Portuguese adolescents ages 15–18 years. The study considered the age- and sex-adjusted z-scores for the ratio of total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein, homeostasis model, triglycerides, and systolic blood pressure, and a metabolic risk score was constructed by summing all the z-scores (≥1 standard deviation was considered high risk). Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated by the 20 m shuttle-run test and dietary intake by a food frequency questionnaire. The best of parental education was used as a proxy measure of SES. The results showed that adolescents with low SES were more likely to have a high metabolic risk score (odds ratio [OR], 1.96; p < 0.020) regardless of cardiorespiratory fitness, adherence to the Mediterranean diet, or pubertal stage. In conclusion, a lower SES was associated with increased risk for a high metabolic risk score among Azorean adolescents after adjustment for pubertal stage, adherence to the Mediterranean diet, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Future health-promotion strategies among Azorean adolescents should consider the impact of SES on their health.

Bookreading has proven to be beneficial for children's language and literacy development (e.g. Bus, Van Ijzendoorn and Pellegrini, 1995; Fletcher and Reese, 2005; Mol and Bus, 2011a). Families in Western countries are often advised to read to their young children, and many parents appear to be aware of the positive effects of bookreading. However, little is known about bookreading patterns among families in the Netherlands. In this study, we analysed the bookreading behaviours of 464 parents with children aged 0-12 residing in the Netherlands, as well as the reading behaviours of 275 children aged 8-12 years. The results demonstrate that 60% of parents read daily to their children. Parental education was significantly related to bookreading frequency but home language was not. Fathers were the primary reader in only 8% of families compared to 65% for mothers. Parents did not read for long periods of time: 40% of parents reported reading between 5 and 10 minutes and another 40% read from 10 to 15 minutes. Almost half of the children in this study reported reading at least once a day and a quarter read between 15 and 20 minutes a day. This study provides more insights into bookreading patterns among Dutch families. Although many families already report reading to their children, there is still room for improvement regarding the length of reading and paternal bookreading.

Objectives Adolescent immunizations such as human papillomavirus vaccine have been implemented through school based immunization programs (SBIPs) in Australia. We assessed community attitudes toward immunization of adolescents though SBIPs. Methods A cross-sectional population survey of rural and metropolitan households in South Australia in 2011. Univariate and multiple regression analyses identified predictors of support for a SBIP. Results Participation rate was 57.3% with 1926 adults interviewed. Overall, 75.9% regarded school as the best place to offer adolescent immunizations, with 16.4% preferring the family physician. Parents of high school students were most supportive (88.4%) of a SBIP with 87.9% of their adolescents reported as having participated in the program. Adults 18–34 years (79.4%) were more likely to support a SBIP compared to older adults (68.7% of >55 years) [adjusted OR = 2.39, p = 0.002] and men were more supportive (80.3%) than women (71.7%) [adjusted OR = 1.54, p = 0.003]. Reasons for participation in the SBIP included convenience (39.9%), public funding for the service (32.4%), and confidence in immunization recommendations (21.0%). Conclusions Public support for the SBIP was very high particularly amongst parents whose adolescent/s had participated in the program.

Introduction We aimed to determine demographic predictors of parental vaccine safety and risk perceptions, and assess the relationship between the occurrence of children's perceived adverse events following immunisation (AEFI) on parents’ opinions. Methods Computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI) were conducted in 2011 with a cross-sectional, random general population sample of rural and metropolitan residents in South Australia. Multivariate ordinal logistic regression analyses examined associations between parental vaccine safety attitudes and socio-demographic factors, adjusting for whether children had ever experienced a previous suspected AEFI. Results Of 469 parents interviewed, 95% were confident in vaccine safety in general, but almost half expressed concern for pre-licensure testing of vaccines. Of all parents, 41% responded that at least one of their children had experienced an AEFI. Almost one third of the AEFI parent group indicated they reported their children's symptoms to either a healthcare professional or the Department of Health. Parental acceptability of the risks of febrile convulsion and anaphylaxis were 73% and 76% respectively. Ordinal logistic regression analyses showed parents of children who had experienced a suspected AEFI were associated with greater concern for vaccine safety (OR:0.53, p ≤ 0.01) and more were likely to expect either a mild or a serious AEFI. After adjusting for demographics, parental confidence in vaccine safety was significantly associated with higher levels of education (OR:2.58, p = 0.01) and being born in Australia OR:2.30, p = 0.004. Mothers, when compared with fathers, were less accepting of the two vaccine risks presented: febrile convulsion (OR:0.57, p = 0.04) and anaphylaxis, (OR:0.55, p = 0.04). Conclusions Parents commonly perceive and report that their child has experienced an AEFI. In this group of parents the subsequent expectation of an AEFI and vaccine safety concerns may be heightened. Further resea

This longitudinal study aims to examine the relationships between the perception of parental style, hope, self-esteem and Eysenck's psychoticism dimension throughout the span of four years. The sample was composed of 884 students from the Wollongong Youth Study, which commenced when students entered high school. During the course of the 4 years of the study, each participant completed the test booklets each time data was collected. Data was analyzed using one way ANOVA, Post-hoc test, Repeated Measurement, Pearson and Partial Correlation and General Linear Model in order to provide the aims of the study. The mean score of hope and self-esteem among adolescents from authoritative parents were higher from permissive and authoritarian families while the hope with a permissive perception were lower than those with authoritarian, and self-esteem was lower in the authoritarian group compared to the permissive group. Children with a permissive perception reported higher psychoticism compared to the two other. Significant correlations were found between authoritative perception and hope, self-esteem and psychoticism. Finally, hope, self-esteem and psychoticism showed a significant inter correlation in all of the parental styles. Adolescents with the perception of each kind of parental style showed significant between group differences in psychological well-being throughout the four years of the study.

This longitudinal study aims to examine the relationships between the perception of parental style, hope, self-esteem and Eysenck's psychoticism dimension throughout the span of four years. The sample was composed of 884 students from the Wollongong Youth Study, which commenced when students entered high school. During the course of the 4 years of the study, each participant completed the test booklets each time data was collected. Data was analyzed using one way ANOVA, Post-hoc test, Repeated Measurement, Pearson and Partial Correlation and General Linear Model in order to provide the aims of the study. The mean score of hope and self-esteem among adolescents from authoritative parents were higher from permissive and authoritarian families while the hope with a permissive perception were lower than those with authoritarian, and self-esteem was lower in the authoritarian group compared to the permissive group. Children with a permissive perception reported higher psychoticism compared to the two other. Significant correlations were found between authoritative perception and hope, self-esteem and psychoticism. Finally, hope, self-esteem and psychoticism showed a significant inter correlation in all of the parental styles. Adolescents with the perception of each kind of parental style showed significant between group differences in psychological well-being throughout the four years of the study.

This study examined whether hours of parental employment were associated with child behaviors via parenting practices. The sample included 2,271 Australian children aged 4-5 years at baseline. Two-wave panel mediation models tested whether parenting practices that were warm, hostile, or characterized by inductive reasoning linked parent's hours of paid employment with their child's behavior at age 6-7 years. There were significant indirect effects linking mother employment to child behavior. No paid employment and full-time work hours were associated with more behavioral problems in children through less-warm parenting practices; few hours or long hours were associated with improved behavioral outcomes through less-hostile parenting practices. These findings may have implications for developing policies to enable parents to balance work and family demands.

This paper is the first to explore the extent to which the health effects of job displacement extend to the children of displaced workers. Using detailed work and fertility histories from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, estimates are identified by comparing the outcomes of children born after a displacement to the outcomes of those born before. This analysis reveals that husbands' job losses have significant negative effects on infant health. They reduce birth weights by approximately four and a half percent with suggestive evidence that the effect is concentrated on the lower half of the birth weight distribution.

The wgaim (whole genome average interval mapping) package developed in the R system for statistical computing (R Development Core Team 2011) builds on linear mixed modelling techniques by incorporating a whole genome approach to detecting signi cant quantitative trait loci (QTL) in bi-parental populations. Much of the sophistication is inherited through the well established linear mixed modelling package ASReml-R (Butler et al. 2009). As wgaim uses an extension of interval mapping to incorporate the whole genome into the analysis, functions are provided which allow conversion of genetic data objects created with the qtl package of Broman and Wu (2010) available in R. Results of QTL analyses are available using summary and print methods as well as diagnostic summaries of the selection method. In addition, the package features a exible linkage map plotting function that can be easily manipulated to provide an aesthetic viewable genetic map. As a visual summary, QTL obtained from one or more models can also be added to the linkage map.

This paper is the first to explore the extent to which the health effects of job displacement extend to the children of displaced workers. Using detailed work and fertility histories from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, estimates are identified by comparing the outcomes of children born after a displacement to the outcomes of those born before. This analysis reveals that husbands' job losses have significant negative effects on infant health. They reduce birth weights by approximately four and a half percent with suggestive evidence that the effect is concentrated on the lower half of the birth weight distribution.

The wgaim (whole genome average interval mapping) package developed in the R system for statistical computing (R Development Core Team 2011) builds on linear mixed modelling techniques by incorporating a whole genome approach to detecting signi cant quantitative trait loci (QTL) in bi-parental populations. Much of the sophistication is inherited through the well established linear mixed modelling package ASReml-R (Butler et al. 2009). As wgaim uses an extension of interval mapping to incorporate the whole genome into the analysis, functions are provided which allow conversion of genetic data objects created with the qtl package of Broman and Wu (2010) available in R. Results of QTL analyses are available using summary and print methods as well as diagnostic summaries of the selection method. In addition, the package features a exible linkage map plotting function that can be easily manipulated to provide an aesthetic viewable genetic map. As a visual summary, QTL obtained from one or more models can also be added to the linkage map.

The wgaim (whole genome average interval mapping) package developed in the R system for statistical computing (R Development Core Team 2011) builds on linear mixed modelling techniques by incorporating a whole genome approach to detecting signi cant quantitative trait loci (QTL) in bi-parental populations. Much of the sophistication is inherited through the well established linear mixed modelling package ASReml-R (Butler et al. 2009). As wgaim uses an extension of interval mapping to incorporate the whole genome into the analysis, functions are provided which allow conversion of genetic data objects created with the qtl package of Broman and Wu (2010) available in R. Results of QTL analyses are available using summary and print methods as well as diagnostic summaries of the selection method. In addition, the package features a exible linkage map plotting function that can be easily manipulated to provide an aesthetic viewable genetic map. As a visual summary, QTL obtained from one or more models can also be added to the linkage map.

The wgaim (whole genome average interval mapping) package developed in the R system for statistical computing (R Development Core Team 2011) builds on linear mixed modelling techniques by incorporating a whole genome approach to detecting signi cant quantitative trait loci (QTL) in bi-parental populations. Much of the sophistication is inherited through the well established linear mixed modelling package ASReml-R (Butler et al. 2009). As wgaim uses an extension of interval mapping to incorporate the whole genome into the analysis, functions are provided which allow conversion of genetic data objects created with the qtl package of Broman and Wu (2010) available in R. Results of QTL analyses are available using summary and print methods as well as diagnostic summaries of the selection method. In addition, the package features a exible linkage map plotting function that can be easily manipulated to provide an aesthetic viewable genetic map. As a visual summary, QTL obtained from one or more models can also be added to the linkage map.

Background The Vaccine Assessment using Linked Data (VALiD) trial compared opt-in and opt-out parental consent for a population-based childhood vaccine safety surveillance program using data linkage. A subsequent telephone interview of all households enrolled in the trial elicited parental intent regarding the return or non-return of reply forms for opt-in and opt-out consent. This paper describes the rationale for the trial and provides an overview of the design and methods. Methods/Design Single-centre, single-blind, randomised controlled trial (RCT) stratified by firstborn status. Mothers who gave birth at one tertiary South Australian hospital were randomised at six weeks post-partum to receive an opt-in or opt-out reply form, along with information explaining data linkage. The primary outcome at 10 weeks post-partum was parental participation in each arm, as indicated by the respective return or non-return of a reply form (or via telephone or email response). A subsequent telephone interview at 10 weeks post-partum elicited parental intent regarding the return or non-return of the reply form, and attitudes and knowledge about data linkage, vaccine safety, consent preferences and vaccination practices. Enrolment began in July 2009 and 1,129 households were recruited in a three-month period. Analysis has not yet been undertaken. The participation rate and selection bias for each method of consent will be compared when the data are analysed. Discussion The VALiD RCT represents the first trial of opt-in versus opt-out consent for a data linkage study that assesses consent preferences and intent compared with actual opting in or opting out behaviour, and socioeconomic factors. The limitations to generalisability are discussed.

This paper is the first to explore the extent to which the health effects of job displacement extend to the children of displaced workers. Using detailed work and fertility histories from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, estimates are identified by comparing the outcomes of children born after a displacement to the outcomes of those born before. This analysis reveals that husbands' job losses have significant negative effects on infant health. They reduce birth weights by approximately four and a half percent with suggestive evidence that the effect is concentrated on the lower half of the birth weight distribution.

Aim: The aims of this study were (1) to analyse the influence of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and parental overweight status (POS) and socioeconomic status (SES) on abdominal obesity. Subjects and methods: This study was comprised of 779 adolescents (12–18 years). Waist–height ratio (WHtR), 20 m shuttle-run test to ascertain CRF, POS according to World Health Organization recommendations and SES of parents using level of education were analysed. Results: Using WHtR, the prevalence of abdominal obesity was 21.3% (23.5% girls and 17.9% boys; p = 0.062). Regardless of gender, participants who belonged to the WHtR risk group had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower CRF scores than the WHtR non-risk group; 84.4% of girls who belonged to the WHtR risk group had one or two overweight parents (p ≤ 0.05). Boys with low CRF (OR: 6.43; CI: 3.33–12.39) were more likely to belong to the WHtR risk group compared with their lean peers. Girls with low CRF (OR: 1.78; CI: 1.14–2.78) and with at least one overweight parent (OR: 2.50; CI: 1.07–5.85) or two overweight parents (OR: 4.90; CI: 2.08–11.54) were associated with the risk of abdominal obesity. Conclusion: This study highlights the influence of adolescents' family on abdominal obesity, especially in girls. Further, the data suggested that low CRF was a strong predictor of risk values of abdominal obesity in adolescence.

Purpose – Extant research downplays the influence of children under the age of eight on food-related decision making and consumption within families. This paper seeks to address this issue. Design/methodology/approach – Utilising novel techniques to elicit responses, the research employed focus group and interviews of a sample of children aged between three and eight years and a sample of their parents. Findings – The exploratory findings of this study suggest that younger children apply effective if less sophisticated pestering techniques than older children, and play a significant role in determining family food consumption. They demonstrate a purposeful and directed pursuit of food brands and products, along with an awareness of the purpose of promotion and a desire to use a number of persuasive techniques in their dealings with parents. This contradicts some of the existing thinking that younger children in the 3-8 year age group have little/less influence on purchasing food. Originality/value – This research offers a number of contributions in that it presents the views of both children and parents, and uses novel techniques through visual representations of feelings and emotions to elicit findings.

To assess parental vaccine safety views and future vaccination decisions after an adverse event following immunisation (AEFI) experienced by their child. A cross-sectional telephone survey was conducted of parents of children aged 0–7 y, identified in AEFI reports submitted to the South Australian Immunisation Section, Department Health. The reports included childhood National Immunisation Program (NIP), seasonal or pandemic influenza vaccines. Interviews were conducted following a national suspension of the 2010 seasonal trivalent influenza (STIV) vaccine. Parental attitudes toward vaccine safety, reasons for reporting the AEFI and impact on future vaccination intent were assessed. Of 179 parents interviewed, 88% were confident in the safety of vaccines in general. Parents reporting an AEFI to the STIV were more likely to state the event had influenced future vaccination decisions than the NIP vaccine reporters (65% vs 14%, p < 0.001), with 63% stating refusal or hesitance to re-vaccinate their children against influenza. Media reports of the 2010 STIV program suspension was the most common reason for reporting an AEFI for parents of children who received an influenza vaccination. The AEFI experience did not impact on parental decision to continue with routine childhood NIP schedules, regardless of whether children received influenza or NIP vaccines. In contrast, most parents whose child experienced an AEFI to the 2010 STIV stated decreased confidence in the safety of influenza vaccines, which is likely to have impacted on the uptake of seasonal influenza vaccination in 2011. Addressing influenza vaccine safety concerns to promote influenza vaccination in the community is required.

Background/Objectives: The aims of this study were as follows: (1) to analyze differences in cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), parents’ body mass index (BMI) and birth weight (BW) between non-overweight (NOW) and overweight/obese (OV/OB) adolescents, and (2) to investigate the association of those variables with the risk of their biological offspring being OV/OB. Subjects/Methods: This study comprised 788 adolescents (477 girls and 311 boys), aged between 12 and 18 years. CRF was predicted by maximal multistage 20-m shuttle-run test according to the procedures described in FITNESSGRAM. Children's BMI was classified according to the International Obesity Task Force. Adolescents’ BW was assessed from each child's pediatric record at birth. Parents’ OV/OB status was defined and classified according to the World Health Organization. Socioeconomic status was defined by parental education. Results: The prevalence OV/OB was 21.4 and 5.3%, respectively, and there were no gender differences. The OV/OB adolescents (girls and boys) had significantly (P≤0.05) lower CRF scores and higher BW (P≤0.05) than did the NOW pears. Overall, 92.9% of OV/OB girls had one or two parents with OV/OB (P≤0.05). Boys with low CRF (odds ratio (OR): 3.75; P≤0.05) and high BW (OR: 1.65; P≤0.05) were more likely to be classified as OV/OB compared with NOW. Girls with low CRF (OR: 2.66; P≤0.05), high BW (OR: 2.09; P≤0.05) and at least one parent (OR: 2.28; P≤0.05) or two parents with OV/OB (OR: 4.39; P≤0.05, respectively) were classified as OV/OB. Conclusions: Results from this study highlight the association between the family adolescents’ obesity, in girls. Furthermore, our data suggested that low CRF and high BW were strong predictors of OV/OB in adolescence.

Government policies that increase the incomes of poor families have been promoted as a way of improving children's life chances on the grounds that children who grow up in rich families tend to have better socioeconomic outcomes as adults than children who grow up in poor families. Yet the process that generates the relationship between parents' incomes and those of their children, though well documented, is not well understood. One possibility is that differences in family income lead to differences in parents' monetary investments in their children. Another is that differences in family income reflect differences in parents' innate characteristics that are passed on to their children.

Government policies that increase the incomes of poor families have been promoted as a way of improving children's life chances on the grounds that children who grow up in rich families tend to have better socioeconomic outcomes as adults than children who grow up in poor families. Yet the process that generates the relationship between parents' incomes and those of their children, though well documented, is not well understood. One possibility is that differences in family income lead to differences in parents' monetary investments in their children. Another is that differences in family income reflect differences in parents' innate characteristics that are passed on to their children.